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Aesthetics Vs. Meaning Part V: The Architect in Architecture

2024-10-07T20:35:45Z

Akshayjha:

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Aesthetics Vs. Meaning Part IV: The Architect in Architecture}}

==== Global Movements in Architecture ====
With the arrival of the colonial age, global movements also started arising. Many claim Baroque to be a first truly global movement, but its transplantation on other continents like South and North America was merely the work of the colonial masters.

It was the Eclecticism of the 19th century that truly declared the directionless character of modern architecture. Proud proclamation of the incorporation of whatever elements that struck the fancy of the particular architect, the loss of meaning in architecture could not have so evident. Eclecticism did not just incorporate different idioms of different cultures; it also incorporated the new building materials. The organic nature of curved lines and figures was abandoned in favor of straight lines and geometrical figures. Ornamentation was also not favored.

Art Nouveau was another international movement that was self-conscious of bringing something ‘new’ to architectural history. The urge to create something new was becoming the primary urge in architecture. However, Art Nouveau was also a reaction to the eclecticism of the 19th century and brought back curved lines and natural decoration in architecture.

But it can be safely said that there was only one great architect, one great artist, Antoni Gaudi who practiced this organicism in architecture completely. We know Art Nouveau through Gaudi’s work which uses aedicules and fractals in the building. Structural components play a function as well as embellish the building. But Gaudi was one architect who never became a tradition and seldom could any other artist pursue what he started.

This was inevitable. Once the meaning in architecture is lost and once the sense of the sacred is gone and once the national, racial and regional characteristics are also stripped away one by one, any accidental arrival upon the meaningful way of creating architecture is bound to be buried into sands once the artist who rediscovered it is dead. The same happened with Gaudi. His line is rarely followed in modern architecture.

Modernism arrives with full force in the Expressionist school of architecture where ‘stories and experiences of the World Wars’ are ‘incorporated into the body of architecture’. Architecture, which was a sacred means of communication in ancient times, becomes an ideological tool in modern times. The personal story of the individual architect becomes more important than architecture itself.

The arrival of Art Deco means that for the first time reinforced concrete along with glass and steel architecture is not only accepted as an industrial era necessity but also celebrated as a tool of ‘new aesthetics’. We are supposed to believe that reinforced concrete can be beautiful.

It, however, retains the need for ornamentation or decoration and is vainly decorative like the Chrysler Building or the Empire State Building in New York. Architecture has not been brutalized completely yet.

By the 1940s, even this ornamentation and decoration is abandoned in favor of straight lines, flat surfaces, and the inhuman cubist blocks and chunks of naked concrete. This was called the International Style of Architecture. For something to be truly international, all regional characteristics have to be stripped away. What remains is the rigidity and brutality of industrial-era architecture. Architects like Le Corbusier ‘celebrate concrete’ in all its naked brutality. His buildings look like solid blocks of concrete, with nothing organic relieving the inhumanity of the structure.

Ever since the arrival of Art Nouveau the style had become the primary marker of difference and distinction with meaning and symbolism long having been lost. Various movements like Critical Regionalism, Postmodernism, and Deconstructivism are more ideas than buildings. They are the result of the idiosyncrasies of individual minds. Postmodernist and deconstructivist ideas that destroyed painting, poetry, drama, and literature also destroyed architecture to great extent.

Deconstructivist buildings look like nothing more than a heap of unorganized junk thrown away, or pieces of a previously coherent structure strewn all over without care. In some words, these buildings convey ‘controlled chaos’. In other words, they are the result of the architect’s whim and result of his confused and deconstructed mind.

Brutalist architecture does not even attempt to hide what it does. It does not just expose the brutal aspects of architecture to the public eye but reinforces them. It reinforces ideas of concrete building materials and exposed structural elements. Thus bricks are not plastered over; concrete is not painted over. Geometrical shapes are all you can see in the patterns and the colors are also sepia or monochrome with hardly any different colors relieving the scene.

The Soviet Union with its ‘art for utility’s sake’ argument favored this kind of architecture. Many of these buildings still pay testimony to that past. A lot of socialist countries like India also built many buildings in this vein.

==== The Aura of the Individual Architect ====
In the modern era, particularly in the late 19th century and in the 20th century, architects became law in themselves. There was no longer any spiritual tradition in place to guide them. There was no particular meaning that they wanted to convey. Architecture like much else became a matter of individual whim and fantasy.

Whatever the architect fancied in his whim started taking shape in the form of his building. Since there were no spiritual traditions to guide them in meaning; no cultural glue to bind different architects in one architectural idiom; and no more defining national or regional characteristics to bring their creations together, every architect became an island in himself and started creating strange buildings.

Some of the most iconic buildings of modern times are often no more than the representation of the idiosyncrasy of the architect that built it. In a traditional society, such idiosyncratic elements would be negligible and more often than not condemned.

In a Hindu temple, these are minimal. For example in some temples like the Ramappa Temple in Warangal, we see more importance given to the Naga Kanyas which adorn the area beneath the cornice. But this is an exception and in most cases idiosyncrasies are condemned and the artist is recommended to conform to the philosophical principles of his culture and civilization, trying to create a piece of architecture that conveyed Hindu philosophy most potently.

But in modern architecture idiosyncrasies were celebrated and even required as a necessity. Ayn Rand, building upon this intellectual climate, made a whimsical, introvert, anti-social and idiosyncratic architect as her hero. Atlas Shrugged is the Bible of many modern architects, not for its instruction on architecture, which is negligible, but for its celebration of whimsicality and idiosyncrasy.

As the art of photography developed and aerial photography became a thing with panoramic shots becoming more common than before, the architects began to see their buildings from a distance, gradually becoming more and more conscious of how ‘they looked’ from afar. Architects in a traditional school were also concerned about how their creations looked, but never exclusively so. Like in a Mughal tomb or a Renaissance Palace, in modern architecture the building often became what it looked.

The discipline of photography reverse impacted the individual architects who started to think exclusively in terms of how their buildings looked from afar. Frank Gehry created buildings that often look like different colored tin shards thrown together like the Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, California. Sometimes they seem to defy gravity as the Dancing House of Prague. Sometimes they look horribly like a particular object, like the Day Complex Venice, California which looks exactly like binoculars. Sometimes it is all glass and steel rims like the IAC Building, New York.

Norman Foster’s now-iconic building in London called The Gerkin looks exactly like the Gherkin. That much is an achievement, but why does it look like a gherkin, if one asks, then there is no answer. Renzo Piano’s building, The Shard looks exactly like a shard but why does it look like once again goes unanswered. Rem Koolhas made the Television Headquarters in Beijing look like a Mobius Strip for no evident purpose.

On the other hand, there is a very specific and definite reason why a Latina Nagara shikhara in the Hindu temple looks like that.

If Le Corbusier’s buildings looked like brutal blocks of concrete, then those who revolted against such architecture, like Oscar Niemeyer, purposefully introduced curves in their buildings even where they have no structural or functional place like at Oscar Niemeyer Museum at Curitiba, Brazil.

Zaha Hadid who was hailed as the ‘queen of the curve’ for ‘liberating architectural geometry’ in her works curved everything for just the sake of it. Why rigid geometrical designs of cubes and rectangles were introduced in architecture and what was the need for another movement to go to the other extreme of curves is a question students of architecture schools are too afraid to ask.

==== Strange is the New ‘Beautiful’ ====
Lev Tolstoy in the iconic first sentence of Anna Karenina says: “All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” Similarly, there are only a certain number of ways in which a meaningful and functional building can be created, but infinite ways in which meaningless inanities arising out of individual whims, personal idiosyncrasies and ideological fashions can give rise to a building. These buildings and these architects are prized for their ‘different’ take and meaningless ‘innovation’. The search for difference becomes the search for strange.

Just like a Mughal tomb or a Persian cenotaph, the modern building is built purely for the aesthetic effect. There is no meaning in all these buildings. Though the architects claim the highest of meanings for these buildings there is no objective criterion by which they can be judged. They ‘have to be looked with the architect’s eye’ which simply means that the building does not give itself to any traditional symbolism or meaning and has its own logic which is better not questioned, for ‘true art cannot be judged’.

These buildings are what they look like: just beautiful pieces of architecture. Their material aspect cannot be more emphasized. There is a certain voyeurism about them. The looks are so highly prized that every other function takes second or no priority.

The beauty of the Hindu temple or the pagan temple in Greece lies in its wonderful quality of using the most concrete of mediums to convey the most abstract and most spiritual ideas. The architects of the Hindu temple in India created canons of iconography, sculpture, and architecture which made sure that the highest of truths were conveyed through a concrete medium like architecture.

In modern architecture, this spiritual communication breaks down completely. For a medium to be called communicative, just like a language, a huge number of people have to agree upon shared symbols and common metaphors. In a traditional piece of architecture, this is exactly so. Everyone in ancient India who visited a temple knew what a certain Hasta Mudra meant to convey, and what the Nataraja pose meant to convey. In modern architecture, nobody apart from the architect himself can truly ‘understand’ what he means to say, which is another way of saying that there is no meaning in modern architecture anymore.

And while the Humayun’s Tomb or the Florence Cathedral is doubtlessly and wonderfully beautiful, the modern building does not even fulfill our aesthetic desire. With the help of the University System, art critics, humanities professors, and architecture schools the very definition of aesthetics has been stood on its head. Strange is the new Beautiful. And Ugly can be strange too. Until it is strange, nobody cares. Even ugly is accepted in the name of ‘innovation’.

A beautiful building now is something that is completely strange and completely whimsical based on whims and fantasies and idiosyncrasies of the individual architect. The only criterion to judge is the criterion invented by the very same architect who created the building. Such a system of criticism is fool proof of any criticism. For if there is no objective criterion to judge a building the only criterion left to judge is the criterion of the architect.

In a classic case of inverting the meaning, the modern architecture has managed to call ugly as beautiful, and in a system where objective criticism of art and architecture is no longer possible, where no spiritual system exists anymore to impart meaning to the building, and where no ethnic, cultural or national culture exists to guide the style of the architect, every building is a beautiful building, no matter how ugly it looks to us, and no matter how impractical it is for use.

And it all happened with two momentous changes in the Western tradition of architecture:

The elimination of the sense of sacred and the obliteration of the spiritual meaning from architecture by Christianity.

The introduction of the individual architect, who devoid of the urge to dedicate buildings in the service of spiritual meaning and to the agency of the cosmic architect, started on the search for the ever new and ever strange, without giving any thought to the meaning of architecture.

==== References ====
Sekules, Veronica. Medieval Art – Oxford History of Art. Oxford University Press, 2001.

Nixey, Catherine. The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World. Pan Macmillan, 2018.

Seznec, Jean. The Survival of the Pagan Gods – The Mythological Tradition and Its Place in Renaissance Humanism and Art. Princeton University Press, 1995.

Murray, Peter. The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance – World of Art Series. Thames & Hudson. 1969.

Authored by Pankaj Saxena.
Published by IndicaToday.[[index.php?title=Category:Art and Culture]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aesthetics_Vs._Meaning_Part_IV:_The_Architect_in_Architecture}}

Aesthetics Vs. Meaning Part V: The Architect in Architecture

2024-10-07T20:34:48Z

Akshayjha:

Aesthetics Vs. Meaning Part II: The Importance of Hindu Architecture

2024-10-07T20:27:58Z

Akshayjha:

==== The Aedicule in the Hindu Temple ====
In order to understand that we need to first understand the meaning of the term aedicule, this is frequently used about the Hindu temple. In the context of the Hindu temple, the term aedicule refers to the miniature shrine or a mini replica of the entire temple, temple shikhara or vimana, which is to be found most prominently on its shikhara and outer walls of the garbha-griha.

It is found in all three major varieties of Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida and is so profusely used in some architectural styles such as that of the Kalyani Chalukyas and Hoysalas of Karnataka that Gerard Foekema calls the very style as ‘architecture decorated by architecture’.

Kalleshvara Temple, Hire Hadagalli, Karnataka – Architecture decorated by Architecture

The aedicule is so universally present that it overwhelms the visitor, forcing him to constantly keep shifting his attention from one miniature shrine to another, making it hard for him to distinguish where one aedicule ends and another begins. It is this feature which led James Fergusson to observe that “everywhere…in India, architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings.” (Ferguson 285) Adam Hardy who considers the idiom of aedicule as the fundamental concept behind Indian architectural thinking, says:<blockquote>“…it was some time after my first trip to India that it gradually became clear to me that aedicules are not just ornaments, but the basic units from which most Indian temple architecture is composed. Temple design is conceived as containing numerous smaller temples or shrines, arranged hierarchically at various scales, embedded within the whole or within one another. Once this simple concept is understood, other things fall into place.” (Hardy 10)</blockquote>The Hindu philosophy imagines macrocosm in microcosm, and this thinking is reflected in all art in India. It is also the basic idea behind the idiom of the aedicule. The entire temple is reflected in its parts. Sometimes the aedicules are themselves made up of smaller aedicules and this series continues up to the point where architecture allows it to. It conveys the idea of an endlessly regressing series of aedicules, something like the fractal geometry.

As the temple is a representation of the universe, hence the entire universe is reflected again and again in the smallest parts of the temple. The idiom of aedicule is most prominently used in the shikhara of the temple. In some styles, like the Shekhari mode of the Nagara style, the shikhara is made of its smaller versions, called urushringas (half shikharas). These urushringas crowd together and rise to meet at the top beneath the amalaka.

==== Hindu Temple as Mount Meru ====
The Hindu temple architecture elevates the devotee to higher planes of consciousness by using spiritual symbols. In one symbolism, the Hindu temple is built and perceived in the image of Mount Meru, the sacred mountain.

Mount Meru represents ultimate knowledge and climbing it symbolizes attaining self-realization.

As a devotee enters a Hindu temple, such as the Kandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho, and as he proceeds through the various parts of the temple, from mukh mandapam, to mandapam, to mahamandapam, and then finally to garbha-griha, he symbolically climbs the Mount Meru, leaving the world, its multiplicity and ignorance behind and proceeds towards the pinnacle of knowledge, that is self-realization; he proceeds to have darshan of the deity in the garbha-griha, where he realizes his oneness with the deity or the Supreme consciousness.

This process is mirrored in the symbolism. The outermost walls of the temple are full of every kind of sculpture but as one goes inside the sculpture becomes more divine in nature and gradually disappears in the garbha-griha except the main deity.

The garbha-griha is so named because it is literally the womb of the temple. It is the geometrical centre of the temple site, with its centre, the brahmasthana, occupied by the primary deity. It is called the womb because, under the deity, the ‘seed’ of the temple is inseminated in a kalasha (pitcher) and buried. It is directly above this that the image of the deity is installed.

==== Hindu Temple as a Fire Altar ====
The temple vimana is imagined as the fire of a fire altar, of a Yajna vedi or Vedic fire altar. The shape of the vimana which tapers, recedes, and coalesces into one point at the top with many of half-vimanas, or half-shikharas or miniature aedicular vimanas decorating the ascent of the vimana resembles the sacrificial fire of a fire altar. (Rao 74)

==== The Temple as the Divine Tree ====
The symbolism of the seed is taken further. This seed is believed to have sprouted upwards in the form of the temple vimana and branching out in various shoots, leaves, and branches, it again coalesces at the top in one kalash, bearing fruit which again contains the seed from which it came, and thus directly above this, outside the temple, over the vimana, another kalash is installed which has the same ‘seed’ which is deposited in the kalash underground. Here the temple vimana is imagined as a tree. As S. K. Ramachandra Rao puts it:<blockquote>“The spot where the ‘womb’ is hidden would be the seat of the icon. The icon represents the sap of the temple-tree, the four walls would indicate the spreading branches all around. The roof resting over the wall is technically called ‘row of doves’ (kapota-pali or simply kapota), after the birds that perch on tree-tops. The sanctum is thus a neat model of the growing tree.” (Rao 74)</blockquote>The seed in the underground holds the seed of supreme consciousness. When this consciousness sprouts, it takes the form of the deity in the garbha-griha. On the other hand, the consciousness from above also descends and meets the consciousness that is rising from below. The ascent of individual consciousness is complemented by the descent of the universal consciousness. It is a symbolic way of showing the individual consciousness rising up to meet the universal or supreme consciousness.

This ascent and descent are taking on the vertical axis of the temple, in the garbha-griha and in the vimana that tops it. The devotee that stands in the mandapam, in front of the deity lies on the horizontal axis of the temple. It is his active desire, his deep faith which lets him partake in the divine ascent and divine descent that is taking place in the garbha-griha.

Through the authority of the shastras; the agency of the temple as a Yantra to bring about desired goals; through the worship offered by the priest on the behalf of the devotee; and through divine grace, the devotee partakes in the ascent of consciousness. Deeply meditated upon, the ascent of the consciousness in the garbha-griha becomes his own ascent.<blockquote>“The shrine thus demonstrates the constellation of the human and the divine currents; matter moves up and the spirit flows down. The devotee that stands in front of the icon is expected to partake in this transaction. The emanations that proceed from the icon must be picked up by the faith in his heart. Devotion is the transformer. The rituals conducted within the shrine involve these ideas and attempt to facilitate transformation along the horizontal axis of icon-devotee. The devotee represents active matter and the icon passive spirit. The two are brought together in the creative act of worship.” (Rao 80)</blockquote>This is why darshan holds such importance for a Hindu devotee visiting a temple. More than prayers, more than signing devotional hymns, it is the act of darshan which is central to a temple visit and which transforms the individual consciousness of the devotee having darshan to higher levels.

The symbolism of the temple vimana as the tree is also understood by its etymology. The very Sanskrit word ‘vimana’ has two connotations: “that which is without comparison” and “that which brings about fruit”. Hence the word ‘vimana’ means the one which bears fruit.

==== Hindu Temple is all about Meaning ====
To come back to the point where we started, the Hindu temple is not just a monument. It is a living institution but even more than that it has a meaning and a goal. Through its imagery and play with sculpture and architecture, it elevates the devotees to higher planes of consciousness.

It is not just there to be seen and to be impressed with. It is not just a geometrical marvel. It is not just a photographer’s delight. It is more than the perspective that it offers. It is more than the faith that it commands. It speaks in the language of symbols. It aims to transcend the concrete.

It aims to carry the devotee towards truth through its brilliant imagery and potent symbols. The Hindu temple is not silent. It speaks. The Hindu temple is not passive. It acts. The Hindu temple is not just a place. It is a process: the process of self-realization.

The Hindu temple is all about meaning. It is a device which means to decipher the deepest secrets of life and existence to its devotees, through the most elaborate system of sculptural and architectural symbols.

This is where it differs from both the church and the mosque. But the philosophy behind the Hindu temple is also very different from the modern concept of architecture which will be pursued in the third part of this article.

==== REFERENCES ====
Fergusson, James. A History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. London: John Murray, 1876.

Hardy, Adam. The Temple Architecture of India. Chicester: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.

Ramachandra Rao, S. K. The Vastu-Silpa-Kosha: Encyclopaedia of Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu. New Delhi: Divine Books, 2012. Vol. I.

Coomaraswamy, Ananda. K. The Transformation of Nature in Art. Munshiram Manoharlal, 2014.

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art. Munshiram Manoharlal, 2008.

Authored by Pankaj Saxena.
Published by IndicaToday.[[index.php?title=Category:Art and Culture]]

Implications of the Pandemic, Part 2

2024-10-07T19:08:21Z

Akshayjha:

This is Part 2 of [[Implications of the Pandemic, Part 1|the piece]] which makes a case for the rejection of the global accord on pandemic prevention by India, which has been drafted by World Health Organization, and will be put to vote come May 2024.

==== Health Policy ====
When it comes to health policy, there is no one-size-fits-all solution, certainly not any generic or universal methodology. As observed at the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, different countries must employ differing measures to control the spread of disease, prevent new cases, and treat existing cases using existing healthcare infrastructure. Important considerations are, for instance, the ratio of doctors/healthcare workers in comparison with the population, the median age of the population, the prevalence and communicability of the particular disease, accessibility to healthcare, economic status of the government, etc. These metrics vary extremely widely from country to country, and therefore, any health policy framed cannot be universal. Certainly, when it came to India, though over a billion strong, mortality rates were relatively low during the COVID pandemic, due to various regional factors. Thus, governments must preserve their flexibility to act in accordance with the specific crisis at hand in order to assure effectiveness, and any treaty being framed with respect to health policy must necessarily reflect the same. Handing over the powers to make health-related decisions to an international organization does not appear to be in the best interest of sovereign nations, especially given that the treaty shall effectively confer powers onto the WHO to self-authorize to not only declare health emergencies of international concern but also sustain the state of crisis for as long as deemed necessary, and importantly, to make legally binding recommendations and monitor and survey the states and the populace alike during the period. Rules framed by the WHO under the newly conferred powers could take the form of mandatory screening, medical procedures, vaccine/treatment mandates, forced isolation and quarantine. While recommendations are generally considered “soft law”, non-compliance can often invite a host of consequences, including, presumably sanctions of various sorts, disruptions in supply chains, and the cutting off of financial and/or other types of aid. Citizens are left with no recourse once this irreversible tide has been brought on.

==== The WHO’s Failures: Influence of Global Governance on Domestic Institutions and Policy ====
Global governance refers to the network of institutions, mostly non-governmental and multilateral, that coordinate with transnational actors, facilitate cooperation, and resolve disputes. It involves governance, without sovereign authority, of relationships that transcend national frontier (Finkelstein, 1995). There are more NGOs than ever before, playing the role of powerful actors, involved in shaping policy, negotiating agreements, and monitoring rates of compliance by states with those agreements. According to Lee Jones and Shahar Hameiri in Explaining the failure of global health governance during COVID-19, global governance is key to state transformation, and state authority is outsourced to “diverse, fragmented actors with enhanced autonomy from domestic democratic constraints, allowing many to engage, and increasingly develop joint policies with, their overseas counterparts”. Then, “these networks develop rules, standards, guidelines and other forms of ‘soft’ international law, which national agencies are then directed to embed domestically. Implementation is typically monitored and encouraged through benchmarking against internationally agreed standards, rather than coercion”. Importantly, these networks are directly linked to powerful states’ ostensibly domestic institutions through their acquisition of international functions. In this manner, international organizations such as the WHO are used for meta-governance. Rather than governing from the outside, through the direct imposition of global rules on member states, they chiefly operate through cultivating changes within states to harmonize domestic policies, institutions and procedures. In this manner, global governance circumvents negotiations, and roadblocks in agreements and multilateral cooperation between states. Delinking policy-making from domestic political processes tends to weaken the effect and intent of the policy. This is where the failures of the WHO can be arrived at. Jones and Hameiri state that since the WHO has come under donor control, its agenda has given way to pro-market meta-governance, compromised the WHO’s independence and its pandemic response capacity, leaving it unable to do much beyond regulating and evaluating national arrangements.<blockquote>“In 1982 the WHO budget was frozen and in 1985 the United States withheld 80 per cent of its financial commitment in protest at the WHO’s Essential Drugs Program, which American pharmaceutical companies opposed. Wealthy states increasingly rerouted support for health-care development through the World Bank, thus subordinating it to the structural adjustment agenda, leading to a wave of privatizations and cost-cutting, followed by a push for public–private partner- ships.. The WHO’s operational budget was slashed, leaving it dependent on voluntary donations. By the 2000s, discretionary donor funding comprised around 80 per cent of WHO expenditure, making it subservient to wealthy countries’ demands.”</blockquote>At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the hollowing out of the WHO left it subservient to major donors, which now included China, where the outbreak originated, further attenuating its response. The WHO’s most disastrous act was to endorse China’s lockdown policy, which fuelled mounting panic and calls for extraordinary measures across the world, and created intense media and public pressure on other governments to follow suit. The WHO disastrously continued supporting lockdowns long after it became clear that eradication was impossible.

==== Hurtling towards a global Surveillance State? ====
Article 1 defined “WHO coordinated laboratory network” as “the international network of laboratories, coordinated by WHO, that conduct year-round surveillance of pathogens with pandemic potential, assessing the risk of an emerging pathogen with pandemic potential and assisting in pandemic preparedness measures”. Article 4, “Pandemic prevention and public health surveillance” recommends cooperation for monitoring and surveillance, both among member states and with the WHO Secretariat. In addition, surveillance finds mention in Article 5, relating to One Health, as well as Article 6 and Article 8, setting off alarm bells. Article 12 states that a WHO PABS system must be established: “The Parties hereby establish a multilateral system for access and benefit sharing, on an equal footing, the WHO Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing System (WHO PABS System), to ensure rapid and timely risk assessment and facilitate rapid and timely development of, and equitable access to, pandemic-related products for pandemic prevention, preparedness and response.” What is the extent to which information relating to public health and pathogen data must be made available to unaccountable international organizations? Are there data privacy concerns? Can the provision of such information be considered a breach of national security? Can we be assured that states are held more accountable for their actions, just as China and the United States were for the COVID-19 pandemic?

==== Prolonging the Pandemic? ====
Article 9(4) imposes upon the signatory states the obligation to fund and publish research and development on pandemic-related products; and reads as follows:

“Each Party shall, in accordance with national laws and considering the extent of public funding provided, publish the terms of government-funded research and development agreements for pandemic- related products, including information on: (a) research inputs, processes and outputs, including scientific publications and data repositories, with data shared and stored securely in alignment with findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability principles; (b) the pricing of end-products, or pricing policies for end-products; (c) licensing to enable the development, manufacturing and distribution of pandemic-related products, especially in developing countries; and (d) terms regarding affordable, equitable and timely access to pandemic-related products during a pandemic.”

==== Financial Burden ====
Article 20 (1) imposes additional financial responsibility on member states to commit to strengthening pandemic preparedness and response, supporting other parties, and the responsibility to mobilize resources as necessary. Article 20 (2)(a) and (b) read as follows: “2. A sustainable funding mechanism shall be established by the Conference of the Parties no later than 31 December 2026. The mechanism shall ensure the provision of adequate, accessible, new and additional and predictable financial resources, and shall include the following: (a) A capacity development fund that shall be resourced, inter alia, through the following: (i) annual monetary contributions from Parties to the WHO Pandemic Agreement; (ii) monetary contributions from recipients pursuant to Article 12 herein; and (iii) voluntary monetary contributions from Parties to the WHO Pandemic Agreement. (b) An endowment for pandemic prevention, preparedness and response, resourced, inter alia, through the following: (i) voluntary monetary contributions from all relevant sectors that benefit from international work to strengthen pandemic prevention, preparedness and response; and (ii) donations from philanthropic organizations and foundations, and other voluntary monetary contributions.”

As may be garnered from the terms of the treaty, there are no efforts at full disclosure or transparency when it comes to the expansion of the powers and the role of the WHO, currently being held hostage to the interests of wealthy donor nations and private organizations, violating the principle of informed consent while being signatory to a contract. The mention of philanthropic organizations, undoubtedly including the Gates Foundation, among others, leave little to the imagination.

A group of prominent lawyers, doctors and concerned citizens have written to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Minister of Health and Family Welfare Shri Mansukh L Mandaviya urging them to reject the WHO’s global pandemic treaty, premised on the claim that the treaty is ultra vires the constitution of India. The 10-page letter can be accessed in full with all relevant links and references on the Awaken India website: [https://awakenindiamovement.com/who-pandemic-treaty-ultra-vires-of-the-constitution-16-12-23/ WHO Pandemic Treaty Ultra Vires of the Constitution].

Supporters of the treaty argue that a collective approach is the only solution to mitigate the effects of a future pandemic, however, the states championing the treaty are not the ones suffering the downstream effects of vaccine nationalism, inaccessible oxygen, lack of funds to support health system surge capacity, etc. Wenham, Eccleston-Turner, and Voss state that “global processes for health cooperation rooted in a globalist vision of the individual and health equity are fundamentally at odds with the Westphalian state-based system in which we live, which prioritizes state security and the health of a selected few at all other costs. Even something as big as a major global pandemic is not sufficient to get governments to think beyond national interests” — a sentiment that rings true. Talk of solidarity and global corporations appears to be the global north’s way of doing something without actually accounting for disparities and inequity. With countries such as Australia and Slovakia already primed to vote against the adoption of the treaty, and nations such as New Zealand showing hesitancy, it is prudent for India to reconsider its own position, and evaluate the terms of the treaty according to its effect on India’s national health policy rather than adhering unquestioningly to international law. If behaving as a powerful state would be to place national interest above globalist considerations, so be it. For once the ball gets rolling, it would be impossible to stop, not even by the signatory member states, and least of all by the common citizenry that are affected by the health mandates that will probably be effectuated by the organization.

==== References ====

# Soliman, A., Taguchi, K., Matsoso, P., Driece, R.A., da Silva Nunes, T. and Tangcharoensathien, V., 2023. WHO pandemic accord: full adherence to the principle of sovereignty. The Lancet, 402(10410), pp.1322-1323.
# Lee Jones, Shahar Hameiri, [https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiac231 Explaining the failure of global health governance during COVID-19], International Affairs, Volume 98, Issue 6, November 2022, Pages 2057–2076.
# [https://apps.who.int/gb/inb/pdf_files/inb4/A_INB4_3-en.pdf Zero Draft]
# [https://www.ifpma.org/news/innovative-pharmaceutical-industry-statement-on-draft-who-pandemic-treaty-we-need-to-preserve-what-went-well-and-address-what-went-wrong Innovative pharmaceutical industry statement on draft WHO Pandemic Treaty: We need to preserve what went well and address what went wrong by IFPMA]
# [https://spectator.sme.sk/c/23254416/new-who-pandemic-treaty-is-targeted-by-slovak-disinformation-actors.html Čítajte viac]
# Clare Wenham, Mark Eccleston-Turner, Maike Voss, [https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiac023 The futility of the pandemic treaty: caught between globalism and statism], International Affairs, Volume 98, Issue 3, May 2022, Pages 837–852
# Finkelstein, Lawrence S. “What is global governance.” Global governance 1 (1995): 367. Barnett, M. N., Pevehouse, J. C., & Raustiala, K. (2022). Global governance in a world of change. Cambridge University Press.
# LAWYERS, DOCTORS and CITIZENS ACROSS INDIA WRITE TO THE PRIME MINISTER & MINISTER, MOHFW: THE DRAFT ‘GLOBAL PANDEMIC ACCORD’ OF THE ‘WHO’ IS ULTRA VIRES OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA AND INDIA CANNOT BE A SIGNATORY TO IT The letter addresses the plans of the World Health Organisation (WHO) through its proposed Global Pandemic Accord and IHR Amendments to be in charge of World Health and the dire implications thereof for Countries’ Sovereignty. It highlights worries about the accord’s potential impact on India’s sovereignty and citizens’ rights. The accord suggests granting the WHO unprecedented powers that could infringe upon national autonomy and individual liberties. Concerns revolve around potential coercion in medical procedures, ethical violations, and the erosion of fundamental rights. Urgent attention and scrutiny of this matter are urged to safeguard constitutional values and citizen rights. [https://dissidentvoice.org/2023/12/letter-from-india-stop-world-health-organizations-pandemic-preparedness-tyranny/ Summarised] by Colin Todhunter, December 17th, 2023

Authored by Sai Priya Chodavarapu.
Published by Brhat.[[index.php?title=Category:Health and Wellness Sciences]]

Vivaha-Samskaara - A Traditional Hindu Marriage, A Deep Dive into Rituals

2024-07-19T20:53:09Z

Akshayjha:

The Hindu marriage is also known as the vivaha-samskaara. As a samskaara, it is conceptualized at multiple levels - the individual, societal and cosmic. It is a union of all these forces and also secures the well-being of them all. It achieves this vision through an array of mantras, vidhis and ahutis. In this piece, we explore three of the most common and deeply significant rituals of the Hindu vivaham.

==== Kanyadaanam - An Offering unto Dharma ====
The idea of Daanam is one of the pillars of the Indian civilization. It cannot be compared to the modern day idea of charity which looks at the one who receives as "less fortunate" in material wealth than the one who gives.

The practise of Daanam in Bharatiya Drsti, transcends the material. It is a sacred duty prescribed for human beings by the Shastras or the scriptures. Prajapati, the Creator stated that "Da" for the Devatas is Daamyata or self-control, for the Asuras it is "Daya" or the practise of mercy and for humans it is "Datta" which means to give.

To give has been held sacred in our civilizational ethos. It is infused with the Principle of Consciousness. We have Pindadaana - which is making offerings to our ancestors, Annadaana - which is feeding of hundreds and thousands of people, Vidyadaana - which is imparting knowledge and finally Kanyadaana - which is giving of the bride.

The one who receives any of this is certainly not less fortunate in any sense. Right from the affluent to the poor, everyone partakes of Annadaana. And the one who receives Jnana-daanam from the Guru, is perhaps the most blessed amongst all!

Then what about Kanyadaanam? The Paraskara Grhyasutra states that the "giving" of the bride is only figurative for the bride does not cease to belong to her maternal home once she is married. The parents are only instruments in initiating a new beginning in the couple's life. The actual forces presiding over the entire ritual are cosmic and the essence of these rituals is extremely subtle.

Let us look at the first metaphor. One of the mantras chanted by the groom during this process states, "May the heavens give you, may the earth receive you!" Every being is nourished in the space of the Aakasha Tattvam and we are further graced by the humility and giving nature of Mother Earth.

The mantra continues later to present the very sankalpa of a Hindu marriage where the groom states, "I am the sky, you are the earth! I belong with you and you belong with me, for there is no earth without the sky and no sky without the earth!"

Shri Maha Vishnu is equated with the sky and Devi Mahalakshmi is the generous earth. In a Hindu marriage, the groom is thus Vishnu or Narayana Himself and the bride is Devi Lakshmi. It is considered that through them the four Purusharthas of Dharma, Artha, Kaama and Moksha will be upheld in the world. Hence the bride is specifically referred to as Saha-dharma-charini. Without her presence, the man cannot perform Dharmic actions.

Hence the bride is the wealth of the family she comes from and goes into. Here, wealth is understood as that which is dear to the heart. That which brings auspiciousness and bliss along with it. The bride as the embodiment of Grihalakshmi is the auspicious center of her home. As she walks with her husband, she is the upholder of Dharma. The one who protects the traditions of the family and lineage.

Thus when the father and mother perform Kanyadaana they acquire great punya. This ritual is their path to Brahmaloka!

After having taken care of his daughter and holding her dear to his heart, the father takes a promise from the groom that his daughter shall be protected and respected in her new home.

That may this intelligent and virtuous woman who is being offered to the groom be blessed with abundance, well-being and prosperity. The Veda Mantras later bless the bride by saying, "Be like a queen in the family!"

The husband must never ever break this promise. For what he is receiving is unparalleled. His dharmapatni has been blessed by Soma (the moon) with feminine grace, by Surya with radiance and finally by Agni with prosperity and the ability to fulfill the Catur-vidha Purusharthas. With Agnideva's blessings, she has transformed into his bharya - the source of life for his home.

In the second metaphor which is guided by the hallowed Kamastuti, where Kamadeva guided by Dharma is the true giver and receiver during all rituals conducted in the wedding. Everyone else are only instruments. Kaama is essential for the fulfillment of Grhasthashrama Dharma for it initiates the creation of progeny.

In the final metaphor, the Veda mantras also proclaim that the parents of the bride are Varuna Bhagavan during the ritual of Kanyadaana, the bride if Surya Devata who is symbolic of the Brahma-tattva and supreme intelligence while the groom is Shri Maha Vishnu, the noble one. A beautiful picturisation plays out here.

Varuna is the Lord of Samudra, the oceans while Shri Mahavishnu is the infinite sky. During sunrise, the ocean figuratively "gives" the sun to the sky who together enliven the entire world and bring well-being to all of us. The father thus offers the bride to the groom, for the well-being of the entire family, for the protection of Dharma which ultimately protects the entire world.

==== The Saptapadi - 7 Steps to Dharma & Ananda ====
The Saptapadi is an important ritual in the marriage ceremony across India where the couple make seven commitments that cement the foundation of their marriage.

In the Hindu tradition, the husband is symbolically Bhagavan Maha Vishnu while the wife as his sahadharmacharini is Devi Mahalakshmi. It is the responsibility of both husband and wife to participate in nourishing each other and take care of each other's families. Through the vows made during the Saptapadi, they offer each other complete faith, love, respect, joy, growth, strength, prosperity and health.

With the first step, the husband welcomes his wife into their home and places into her care, all his prosperity. Symbolically, it is the sustainer, Shri Maha Vishnu who has utmost faith that Mahalakshmi will protect and bless all that is considered wealth in the world. The wife in turn promises to take care of his family with the material resources provided to her.

With the second step, the husband and wife seek to provide each other with mental and physical strength and good health. They promise to become each other's strength, remain forbearing during tough times while holding family ties together.

The third step is a prayer for wealth that is both material and spiritual and rooted in Dharma.

The fourth step is a request for mutual happiness where the husband states that all that is conducive for his well-being is dependent upon his Dharmapatni. She in turn promises to nourish and understand him to the best of her capacity. The fifth step marks devotion and service for the welfare of each other and their families.

The sixth step is a promise to enjoy the pleasures of all six seasons together and a commitment of unwavering loyalty to each other. The wife in the spirit of Stri-dharma without which Grhasthashrama Dharma stands null and void, makes a promise to support her husband as they live the Vedic and Dharmic way of life.

Finally, with the 7th step the husband and wife ask for happiness born out of spiritual wisdom. The husband prays that his wife be renowned for her righteous conduct and loyalty while promising her his own affection.

Sakhyam or friendship is the bedrock for any relationship. The Saptapadi ceremony traditionally concluded with a mantra and a Sakhya Homa where the couple promise lasting friendship, mutual respect and harmony. The Veda mantras proclaim that the wife is the husband's best friend and vice versa.

Here resides the essence of Grhasthashrama Dharma where the couple anchors in friendship and functions as a whole unit. Where he is the music, she becomes the lyric. They deem the performance of duties as sacred, of which the foremost is to nourish one another and fulfil the Catur-Vidha Purusharthas of life together.

==== Maangalyadharana - Towards Auspicious Beginnings of Togetherness ====
As the ceremonial waters for Kanyadaanam are being poured, the father offers his daughter who is the embodiment of Devi Mahalakshmi to the groom who is Shri Mahavishnu himself.

During this time, the mangalsutra that is to be tied around the bride's neck is taken around for the blessings and auspicious wishes of the elders in the crowd. It is then brought back to the officiating priest who worships Devi Mahalakshmi for she is believed to protect the mangalsutra. Her presence is invoked that she may be pleased and shower auspiciousness upon the couple.

The maangalyam itself has tremendous significance. It represents the essence of Stri-dharma and Grihasthashrama Dharma. It is believed to be a symbol of the devotion and faith of the Dharmapatni that eventually protects the well-being of the husband and grants him a long life.

While tying the maangalyam (around her neck, the husband also offers a prayer that may his wife as one who has many auspicious qualities live a hundred years in joy and good health.

Thus the husband and wife come together in a sacred union to facilitate each other's processes of self-discovery and attainment of the highest form of well-being.

The maangalya (माङ्गल्य) has two intricate symbolisms. On one hand it stands for commitment to each other in thought, speech and action. On the other hand it shows us that the husband and wife are one at all levels of being - the gross (sthula sarira), the subtle (sukshma sarira) and the causal (karana sarira).

The Sakhya Mantra which is chanted after the completion of the Saptapadi seeks to deepen this understanding by creating a foundation of friendship between the couple. How else will the symbolism of togetherness that the maangalyam stands for, be fulfilled?

The husband seeks his wife's friendship and companionship. He requests that they never let this sacred bond down. He prays that as they begin their life, may they mutually decide about their obligations and undertakings, cultivate love, respect and goodwill for each other at all times and enjoy the pleasures of life together.

He goes on to seek her support in the performance of austerities and invites her to unite with his heart in a shared, higher vision.

This sentiment is further cemented by two mantras uttered towards the end of the marriage ceremony. The couple touch each other's hearts and state, "Dadaami te hrdayam (ददामि ते ह्र्दयम्) - I give my heart to you", and "Tava cittam anu cittam bhavatu (तव चित्तम् अनु चित्तम् भवतु) - May your mind work in alignment with mine."

We end this series with a statement by Pujya Swami Dayananda Saraswati, "When self-acceptance, self-growth and self-discovery are the desired goals, the husband and wife become pilgrims."

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

Vivaha-Samskaara - A Traditional Hindu Marriage, A Deep Dive into Rituals

2024-07-19T20:53:04Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " The Hindu marriage is also known as the vivaha-samskaara. As a samskaara, it is conceptualized at multiple levels - the individual, societal and cosmic. It is a union of all these forces and also secures the well-being of them all. It achieves this vision through an array of mantras, vidhis and ahutis. In this piece, we explore three of the most common and deeply significant rituals of the Hindu vivaham. ==== Kanyadaanam - An Offering unto Dharma ==== The idea of Daa..."

Mahashivaratri - Significance of the Great Night of Lord Shiva

2024-07-19T20:51:22Z

Akshayjha:

Mahashivaratri, known as the great night of Shiva, holds profound spiritual significance for devotees around the world. Lord Shiva, the epitome of auspiciousness and the life source of all existence, is revered in various forms, each resonating uniquely with the spiritual growth of the Upasaka, or devotee. From the benevolent Shri Dakshinamurthy, the fountainhead of all knowledge, to the fierce Bhairava, and the all-encompassing Jagadeeshwara, Shiva manifests in myriad forms to guide and protect. Pashupatinath, the lord of all sentient beings, illustrates his compassionate oversight of all life.

Mahashivaratri is a night of great spiritual potential. Lord Shiva is the source of auspiciousness and all existence. He is the life source that flows through us, keeping us alive and lively. An Upasaka can worship the form of Shiva most suitable for his spiritual growth, as decided by his Guru.

Lord Shiva is also Shri Dakshinamurthy, the source of all forms of knowledge and He is also Bhairava, the fierce one who is dearest to the Upasaka's heart. And He is Jagadeeshwara, the Lord of the entire manifest universe. He is Pashupatinath, the Lord of all sentient beings.

Without Shiva, we become Shava - a corpse. However, without any form of spiritual growth or purpose, we remain a Shava from within. To awaken those vital yet subtle life energies, Lord Shiva is worshipped and meditated upon on this night of Mahashivaratri, also known as the great night of Shiva! Every month has a Shivaratri.

Then what makes this day special? According to astrological positions, there is a natural upsurge of spiritual energy on this day. It is of utmost importance to keep the spine erect and engage oneself in meditation upon the sacred Panchakshari Mantra - Om Namah Shivaya.

According to the prescriptions of the Shiva Purana, devotees observe a day-long fast to be broken at next daybreak with the prasada offered to Lord Shiva. They stay awake for the entire night, performing abhisheka for the Shivalinga, making offerings of bilva patram and chanting the Panchakshari as the rituals go on. At various places, Rudra Homam is performed to propitiate Bhagavan Mahadeva.

There are various legends associated with Mahashivaratri. It is believed that invoking Shiva enhances marital bliss because Shiva and Shakti were married with divine splendor on this day. Shiva also consumed the deadly Halahala poison which emerged from the Samudramanthana by the Devas and Asuras. This signifies a victory over enemies for the ambitious.

Lubdhaka, a devout tribal who unknowingly worshipped the Shivalinga with a thousand bilva leaves becomes the recipient of Shiva's grace. It is this grace that bestows the asetic with the stillness he seeks and the Yogi with the experience of the unbounded, of the oneness of all existence.

It is this grace that a devotee's heart yearns for. It is said that there are four ways of experiencing the divine which can be applied to the context of the worship of Lord Shiva during Mahashivaratri.

1. Saamipyam - You engage in the rituals and meditation with the faith that you are close to Shiva, dear to His heart.

2. Saanidhyam - As your contemplation deepens, you experience the sanctifying presence of Lord Shiva in your heart center.

3. Saarupyam - With His grace and prolonged upasana, you see His presence throbbed within you and in all life forms around.

4. Saayujyam - There is no "You" left anymore. It is a complete dissolution. Only Shiva remains.

Mahashivaratri is therefore a magnificent night that offers an opportunity for profound spiritual transformation. Through fasting, staying awake, and engaging in rituals like abhisheka and the chanting of Panchakshari, devotees seek to draw closer to the divine presence of Lord Shiva.

We are all seekers of the Truth. We seek that vastness, that unlimitedness from where everything emerges and dissolves back into. This vast emptiness, the very source of creation is Shiva. The seed of potential within every human being is Shiva. He is Bholenath, the most compassionate one. On this great night of Mahashivaratri, let us contemplate upon Mahadeva and become recipients of divine bliss.

As seekers of truth and divine bliss, Mahashivaratri invites us to meditate upon Mahadeva, embracing the vast emptiness from which all creation emerges and dissolves. By connecting with Bholenath, the most compassionate one, we open ourselves to receive his boundless grace and spiritual fulfillment, making Mahashivaratri a night of unparalleled divine communion and inner awakening.

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

Mahashivaratri - Significance of the Great Night of Lord Shiva

2024-07-19T20:51:18Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " Mahashivaratri, known as the great night of Shiva, holds profound spiritual significance for devotees around the world. Lord Shiva, the epitome of auspiciousness and the life source of all existence, is revered in various forms, each resonating uniquely with the spiritual growth of the Upasaka, or devotee. From the benevolent Shri Dakshinamurthy, the fountainhead of all knowledge, to the fierce Bhairava, and the all-encompassing Jagadeeshwara, Shiva manifests in myriad..."

Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Bihu - A Celebration of Interconnectedness & Well-Being

2024-07-19T20:50:25Z

Akshayjha:

Often, owing to a loss of cultural meaning-making mechanisms, we are unable to understand the deeper significance of our festivals. We celebrate them superficially and fail to understand the traditions in their entirety. What makes most of the utsavas of Bharat beautiful is that they have different manifestations in various parts of the country. These festivals, which vary beautifully across different regions of Bharat and even beyond, carry profound meanings that have been passed down through generations.

If we were to pause and observe the celebration of our festivals, we would be able to see that the inherent rituals and traditions facilitate the emergence of physical, mental, community and spiritual well-being for all of us. Today we will look at Agnidev as a metaphor and how He is an intrinsic part of the harvest festivals. Understanding the full depth of these traditions reveals how they contribute to our physical, mental, community, and spiritual well-being. By examining Agnidev as a metaphor, particularly in the context of harvest festivals, we can uncover the layers of meaning embedded in these celebrations.

Additionally, exploring community systems during these festivals highlights their role in nourishing both individual and collective well-being, underscoring the importance of preserving and promoting these unique traditions.

Makar Sankranti is celebrated at a time when winter is gradually declining yet retains its hold over many parts of the country. As per Ayurveda, to balance the Tridoshas and pump in fresh energy into the body, intake of certain foods such as sesame and jaggery are recommended during this season. This helps generate the required heat that can sustain life.

Remember, Agni manifests as heat, as the digestive fire in the body and helps sustain it. This function needs to be enhanced especially during these months of biting winter. What do you think those delicacies such as til gul laddoo, pongal and gajak help with?

Moreover, what we eat is inevitably linked to energizing our mind too. Agni manifests here as the power of focus, of alertness which is generally dull during winters. The worship of Surya and Agni accompanied by festivities is key to re-energizing the mind.

Agni is essentially worshipped as a deity who burns all the impurities and negativities of our minds. During Lohri in Punjab and Bhogi in Andhra Pradesh, offerings of heaps of rice pancakes, old objects, etc are made to the burning bonfire and prayers are offered to Agnidev. Similarly, during Bihu in Assam, people make huts of hay and burn it while and make offerings of betel nuts and rice pancakes to Agni. This is representative of the shedding of old vices and attachments and making a new, auspicious beginning with the grace of the Devatas.

Making a foray into the aspect of spiritual growth, Agni is also worshipped as the source of the knowledge that a sadhaka seeks. It is this Jnana-Agni that burns the old vasanas and gives birth to renewed wisdom in the seeker.

In the yogic context, the northward journey of the sun is also an inner Uttarayana for the sadhaka. This is the period where all his tapas finds spiritual fulfillment and Agni is the heat generated during this purificatory tapasya. These rituals are therefore symbolic of these transformative inner processes.

Finally, each of these rituals foster harmonious relationships and enhance community well-being. For instance, in Odisha they have a tradition of choosing a friend and considering this person their best friend for the rest of the year.

Cosmically, it is a day where Suryadev who visits his son Shanidev and spends time with him. Traditionally the two do not share a great relationship, but this is a day to let go of individual emotional patterns and relationship conflicts and begin anew.

Do you see how both simple values and profound philosophies make their way into these traditions and make for a wholesome living? Life in rural India might be tough but it is simple and rooted. It is self-sustaining if we just allow this ecosystem to flourish. The music and dance, flying of kites, community worship and so much offer stable support to every individual who is part of that village both economically and socially.

As we delve into the rituals and traditions of festivals like Makar Sankranti, Lohri, Bhogi, and Bihu, we see how they are intricately designed to balance the Tridoshas, energize the body and mind, and foster spiritual growth. These practices, rooted in the worship of Agnidev, serve not only to burn impurities and negativities but also to re-energize our spirits and renew wisdom.

They symbolize transformative inner processes and foster harmonious relationships within communities. The simplicity and rootedness of rural life, supported by these traditions, offer a self-sustaining ecosystem that capitalism and technology are slowly eroding. It is crucial that we return to the grassroots and reinvigorate these celebrations, ensuring that their fervor and significance are preserved for future generations.

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Bihu - A Celebration of Interconnectedness & Well-Being

2024-07-19T20:50:21Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " Often, owing to a loss of cultural meaning-making mechanisms, we are unable to understand the deeper significance of our festivals. We celebrate them superficially and fail to understand the traditions in their entirety. What makes most of the utsavas of Bharat beautiful is that they have different manifestations in various parts of the country. These festivals, which vary beautifully across different regions of Bharat and even beyond, carry profound meanings that have..."

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 3

2024-07-19T20:49:29Z

Akshayjha:

==== Who is Indrani? ====
Matrka Indrani who is also known as Aindri and Vajri is the Shakti of Indra Deva, the king of the Devas. We know the opulence, power and resplendence that Indra stands for. One can only imagine the majesty and glory of Aindri then! Dark-red in complexion, she is the one with a thousand eyes like Indra.

In two of her arms she holds the Vajra or the fearsome thunderbolt and the Shakthi while the other two rest in Abhaya and Varada Mudra. Adorned with rich ornaments and the kirita mukuta, she has for her emblem and her vehicle, the charging elephant.

According to the Tantric tradition, Aindri rules jealousy or matsarya. If we observe, the shadow side of Indra is envy. Multiple stories in the Puranas portray the havoc that his envy causes, eventually evoking the spirit of surrender in him.

It shows how envy can blind even the best of us but surrender unto the Supreme and a realization of our faults can bestow upon us the awareness and grace that Aindri stands for. Transcending envy is a great emotional obstacle crossed! It opens the way to experiencing oneness and thus the presence of the compassionate Divine Mother.

As per Yogic tradition, Aindri presides over the Swadhisthana Chakra which literally means the abode of the Self. It is associated with steadfastness, surrender and the energy of being, of alignment. The element of water comes into play bringing with it fluidity in being and the ability to practice steadfast surrender unto the Supreme.

In the Ayurvedic tradition, Aindri is associated with the Majja-dhatu which is nothing but our bone marrow which is quite crucial to our existence. It governs metabolic processes in the brain and spinal cord, the production of blood cells and is an essential component of the central nervous system. At the psychological level a healthy majja brings in the experience of fullness and freedom that every sadhaka seeks.

In the Devanagiri script, Aindri represents the ya-varga and she guards the divine city of Tripura in the north-east. In the Narayani Stuti she is glorified as the thousand-eyed illustrious queen who shines in fascinating splendor, is the wielder of the blazing Vajra and the destroyer of the demon Vritrasura.

==== Who is Chamunda? ====
The very name of Matrka Chamunda is enough to evoke both terror and fascination for this fearsome aspect of the mother goddess in the sadhaka’s heart. She is the destructive Shakti of Devi Chandi, who is as ferocious in her appearance and habits as Devi Mahakali.

In the Devi Mahatmyam, after Mahakali beheads the demons, Chanda and Munda, she hands over their heads to Mahadevi who is immensely pleased. From that moment, Kaali becomes known as Chamunda, the one who drank the blood of the armies of Raktabija.

As a Matrika, Chamunda is thus an independent goddess by herself. She is the potent seed of incredible powers situated within each of us. The Goddess has a terrible form that seems to fascinate and stun every sadhaka into deep silence. With three eyes like red flames and a black form with a terrifying face, she has a sunken belly and chest, sporting the garland of skull-heads (mundamala).

Her hair is abundant and knotted, tied up in the jatamukuta with snake or skull ornaments while a crescent moon like that of Shiva is seen shining on the left side of her head. She is sometimes depicted as seated on a male corpse and is surrounded by equally fearsome and blood-thirsty companions such as skeletons, ghosts and flesh-eating jackals.

Devi Chamunda is sometimes shown with ten or twelve arms while at others she has four arms each holding the damaru (drum), trishula, khadga (sword) and panapatra, an urn of fire, a kapala filled with blood, a vajra and a skull-mace (khatvanga). Her vahana is the owl while her emblem is the agile and valiant eagle.

In Tantra-Raja-Tantra, Devi Chamunda rules over paapa (sin) and the tendency to hurt (abhichara). She thus rules over the sadhaka darker, shadow sides that he must confront and resolve or dissolve to move even a step further on his path. It is only the worship of the ferocious Devi Chamunda, that can awaken the potential within us to ruthlessly negate our own unhelpful tendencies. Beyond these internal shackles of the conscious and unconscious, lies the heart center which is home to Sri Lalita Devi.

In the Yogic tradition, quite appropriately Devi Chamunda presides over the Muladhara Chakra which is the very ground or root of our being. Here, she keeps a track of our karmic imprint and cuts asunder the bonds that tie us to this manifested universe. Her worship is quite literally a physical death and the gateway to self-transcendence for the sadhaka.

As per the Ayurvedic tradition, Chamunda governs over Shukra-dhatu or semen which is life-giving energy. It is responsible for one’s vitality and creative energies. It is the essence of all dhatus which nourishes Prana, Ojas and Tejas as per the will of the goddess. One who has a strong Shukra, the light of confidence shines bright on his face and in his eyes.

Finally, in the Devanagari script, Chamunda is associated with the ksha-varga and she stands guard at the south-eastern direction of the city of Tripura.

Chamunda represents the dissolution of the cycle of time. She is also the one who exists beyond death and time. In the Saptamatrka panel, She appears as the final Matrka and she is flanked by Kalabhairava who is liberation personified. With her the manifestation of Shakti finds completion. The Narayani Stuti thus worships Devi Chamunda as - the most terrifying and invincible one with a fearsome face and sharp fangs, who is the destroyer of demons Chanda and Munda, who is Mahakaali herself.

==== Sources ====
<nowiki>https://sreenivasaraos.com/tag/saptamatrika/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/10/07/saptamatrka-part-three/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/10/06/saptamatrka-part-two/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://www.inditales.com/saptamatrikas-legends-history-iconography-temples/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/sapta-matrikas-the-seven-divine-mothers/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrikas</nowiki>

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 3

2024-07-19T20:49:24Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Who is Indrani? ==== Matrka Indrani who is also known as Aindri and Vajri is the Shakti of Indra Deva, the king of the Devas. We know the opulence, power and resplendence that Indra stands for. One can only imagine the majesty and glory of Aindri then! Dark-red in complexion, she is the one with a thousand eyes like Indra. In two of her arms she holds the Vajra or the fearsome thunderbolt and the Shakthi while the other two rest in Abhaya and Varada Mudra. Adorned..."

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 2

2024-07-19T20:48:14Z

Akshayjha:

==== Who is Maheshwari? ====
When we speak about Matrka Maheshwari, we can imagine the attributes of Bhagavan Shiva. As the Shakti of Shiva, she is also known as Raudri and Rudrani. White in complexion, she is depicted with three eyes, two hands in abhaya and varada mudra each and the other two holding the trishula and akshamala or sometimes even the kapala. Like Shiva, her emblem is Nandi and her head is adorned by the jata-mukuta while her hands sport snake bracelets.

According to the Tantra Raja Tantra, Maheshwari rules over Krodha - an emotion that has destructive aspects. If we go back to Chapter 2, Verses 62-63 of the Bhagavad Gita, we see that anger immediately follows if our desire to possess something is not fulfilled.

Hence, in the panel of the Saptamatrkas we also see how Maheshwari is placed next to Brahmani who is associated with creation. Anger is an emotion that demands release, understanding and work. Maheshwari’s grace helps the sadhaka master this emotion and move forward on his journey towards Bhagawati.

In the Yogic tradition, Maheshwari rules over the powerful Ajna chakra which is the seat of Prana Shakti and all forms of awareness. This is the energy that directs all our activities both outwards and inwards as we will. It is also representative of both the heat of tapas and the silent awareness of the subconscious and unconscious that rises in meditation.

As per the Ayurvedic tradition, Devi Maheshwari rules over the Rakhta-dhatu or blood which by its function preserves the human body by becoming the medium that transports nutrients and oxygen to all its parts. But symbolically it is also the symbol of ferociousness and strength that a sadhaka acquires as he moves further on his path.

In the Devanagari script, she is associated with the cha-varga and she guards the divine city of Tripura from the northern direction. In the Narayani Stuti, we meditate upon Maheshwari as who is adorned with the graceful moon, holding the powerful trident and riding the great bull, Nandi. This aspect of Devi is the epitome of valour, righteous destruction and awareness gained through deep contemplation upon the Supreme Truth.

==== Who is Kaumari? ====
Matrka Kaumari is the Shakti of Shri Karthikeya or Shri Murugan as He is called down south. One can visualize the valour she stands for, because Karthikeya is Devasenapati - the Chief Commander of the Devas!

Also known as Kumari and Kartikeyani, she is golden yellow in complexion and adorned in red garments. In one hand she holds the Shakthi, in another she holds either the kukkuta (cockerel) or the ankusha. The other two hands are depicted in abhaya and varada mudra. While she wears a garland of red flowers around her neck, she rides the peacock and her head is adorned with the karanda-mukuta.

Karthikeya is also known as Arumugam in Tamil - meaning the one who has six faces. Interestingly, in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Devi Kaumari is depicted with six faces and 12 arms each of them carrying a symbol or a weapon. True to her name, Kaumari represents eternal youth, the aspirations we hold during our youth and the courage and valorous spirit of these years. She is thus also called Guru-guha or the intuitive being that guides us on our spiritual path.

In the Tantric tradition, Kaumari rules over Lobha or greed - ideally that aspect of us which chases material wealth and praises mindlessly. However when the Matrka showers her grace over the sadhaka, he is able to harness the courage and discernment within him to channel this greed into a mindful aspiration to attain his spiritual goals.

According to the Yogic tradition, Kaumari is associated with the Vishuddhi Chakra where she presides over our aspirations to create and express. She is the bestower of confidence in ourselves and our intelligence as well as the destroyer of any fears that haunt the sadhaka and stall his growth.

As per Ayurveda, Devi Kaumari rules over Mamsa which is muscle. Muscle provides the body its strength and stability and is also associated with the vigor of youthfulness. It represents that essential aspect of physical well-being that any sadhaka requires to pursue his sadhana without obstacles.

In the Devanagari script, she is associated with ta-varga and she stands guard at the gates of the mystical city of Tripura in the east. In the powerful Narayani Stuti, we meditate upon Devi Kaumari as the one of noble virtues, surrounded by peacocks, cocks and bears - each perhaps holding a significance of their own.

==== Who is Varahi? ====
Matrka Varahi is the Shakti of Shri Varaha Swami - the 3rd avatara of Shri Maha Vishnu. One of the attributes of Shri Varaha Swami is that of the fierce protector, as the one who saved Mata Prithvi from the demonic Hiranyaksha and re-instated her at the position she deserved. Similarly, Devi Varahi is also worshiped as the one who destroys all sickness from the mind and body for the welfare of all beings, thus becoming their protector.

She is depicted with a boar-face and a dark complexion that resemble the fierce storm clouds. Thus she is appropriately also called Dhumavati or the goddess of darkness. In the midst of our battles we discover deep awareness and in the silence of darkness, we attain the mystery of the Self.

Seated under the Kalpaka-vruksha, her head adorned with the karanda-mukuta, she wields the hala (plough), the Shakthi and sometimes even the Saranga-dhanusha (bow) and the musula (pestle). She is resplendent, clad in ornaments made of corals and the sweet sound of anklets on her feet become pleasing to our ears. She is the bestower of boons and her emblem is the wise elephant.

In the tradition of Tantra, Varahi rules over mada which is pride and arrogance. It was in his arrogance that Hiranyaksha even dared to drag Prithvi Maa into the depths of the ocean. When arrogance overcomes a sadhaka, it can become his worst enemy and pull him down from all progress he had made until then. However, the grace of Devi Varahi can both protect him from this obstacle as well as destroy it completely with the light of awareness, allowing him to move closer to Shri Lalita Devi situated in his heart.

As per the Yogic tradition, Varahi presides over the Manipura Chakra located at the navel center. It is the center of vitality, for the fire element manifests here as the digestive fire and as heat which sustains the body. Varahi is thus the life energy that helps create balance for the body and mind. She burns the negative in order to sustain the positive within us.

In Ayurvedic tradition, Varahi is associated with the Asthi dhatu - our bones or the skeletal structure which gives us our strength and existence. Asthi is also closely related to the ideas of birth and death, the ultimate destruction of the material and the Truth of the immortal Atman. Isn’t the symbolism intricate?

Varahi represents the pa-varga in the Devanagiri script and she guards over the city of Tripura from the north-west. The Narayani Stuti praises her as the illustrious one who appears as the ferocious boar sporting powerful tusks that rescue Mother Earth from her state of distress.

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 2

2024-07-19T20:48:10Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Who is Maheshwari? ==== When we speak about Matrka Maheshwari, we can imagine the attributes of Bhagavan Shiva. As the Shakti of Shiva, she is also known as Raudri and Rudrani. White in complexion, she is depicted with three eyes, two hands in abhaya and varada mudra each and the other two holding the trishula and akshamala or sometimes even the kapala. Like Shiva, her emblem is Nandi and her head is adorned by the jata-mukuta while her hands sport snake bracelets...."

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 1

2024-07-19T20:47:05Z

Akshayjha:

This article is an exploration into the tradition of the Saptamatrkas - the mother-like goddesses who hold symbolic relevance in both worship and Indian sculptural art.

From the narratives across the Puranas, Tantra-shastras, Yoga and folk cultures, one derives a multifaceted understanding of the nature and functions of the Saptamatrkas. At the center lies the narrative of evolving consciousness.

The 7 mother-like goddesses trace their origins to the Puranas and the Devi Mahatmya, where they emerge as Shaktis from their male counterparts as ferocious aids in divine battles. In the Devi Mahatmyam they emerge to aid Mahadevi in her battle against the demons, Shumbha and Nishumbha, while according to another popular legend this happens when Shiva is battling the dreadful Andhakasura. Nevertheless, the Matrkas are the inherent Shaktis of these Devatas, yet remain independently powerful.

# Brahmani - from Brahma
# Vaishnavi - from Vishnu
# Maheshwari - from Maheshwara
# Kaumari - from Skanda or Karthikeya
# Varahi - from Varaha
# Indrani - from Indra
# And Chamunda who personifies the primordial feminine principle.

In another ancient tribal tradition called the Balagraha and in references from the Mahabharata as well, the Matrkas are curiously seen as terrifying female forces whose mission is to harm children and other beings. They are symbolic of the destructive, primal and untamed essence of Prakriti.

With continuous evolution over the Kushana and Gupta periods and growing prominence of Skanda or Karthikeya who eventually accords the Saptamatrkas the position of being his foster mothers, the Saptamatrkas acquire greater importance in the artistic and spiritual realms.

In sculpture, the Matrkas are depicted as nurturing figures with great emotional depth, where their weapons symbolize the protective destruction they are capable of. They are usually flanked on either side by Karthikeya and Shiva as Virabhadra. Interestingly, the Brihat-Samhita gives detailed descriptions of how the Matrkas must be sculpted similar to their male counterparts.

With the expansion of Tantra and concretization of Shakta philosophy, the Matrkas have assumed a central position as creative energies of Shakti and protectors of Sadhakas of Tantra and Yoga. Particularly, in the Sri Vidya tradition they are seen as guardians of the Sri Chakra and remove the obstructions caused by the eight enemies such as anger, delusion, desire and so on for the Sadhaka who worships them with devotion and seeks to attain the Divine.

In the Yogic tradition, each Matrka represents the continuous refinement of a Sadhaka’s consciousness as he moves from one Chakra to the next, finally reaching the Sahasrara whereby he gains the goal of every Yogi.

Next we come to a fascinating link between the Saptamatrkas and the evolution of language. While Kashmiri Shaiva tradition tells us that the Matrkas are the creative energy that binds all words and symbols together in the form of language. They are the subtle force behind thought and words and we must release ourselves from the bindings of the material realm to recognize the force that supports it all.

Lakshmi Tantra, a tantric text tells us that a Matrka is the power of sound in the cosmos and manifests as the letters of the alphabet while Shakta tradition links each Matrka to each of the seven bijas or seed sounds of the universe.

Matrkas are thus both feared and revered. They represent the center point in a tapestry that weaves together the regional and the universal, the fearsome and the benevolent, the destroyer and the nurturer, the masculine and feminine, the artistic and the spiritual and the creative and sustaining forces.

==== '''Who is Brahmani?''' ====
As the first Matrka, she is the Shakti of Brahma, therefore symbolizing creation. She rides the celestial swan and she is golden in complexion. She carries the kamandalu and akshamala in two hands with the other two in Varada and Abhaya mudra. Adorned in the pitambara, various ornaments and the Karana Mukuta, she is seated under the Palasha tree upon a red lotus.

In the Tantric tradition, the Matrkas are associated with the eight inauspicious emotions that a Sadhaka must overcome in his pursuit of wisdom. Brahmani rules over desire, the very seed of all other emotions a seeker experiences. When a sadhaka worships her, he receives the ability to regulate and then neutralize his desires and effectively his volatile relationship with the material world. In the Khadgamala tradition of Srividya where they guard the City of Tripura with Brahmani in the West.

In Yogic tradition, her energy is concentrated in the Sahasrara Chakra. She then becomes that aspect of the Mother Goddess who liberates the sadhaka as well veils his power to knowledge through her creation and its deluding nature.

We also find each Matrka ruling each of the Sapta-dhatus that provide nourishment and growth to our psycho-somatic structures as per the Ayurvedic tradition. Brahmani is the energy that rules over rasa dhatu which is that fluid which circulates essential nutrients and hormones through the body and is formed from the essence of the food that we take in.

We earlier saw that the force of the Matrikas manifests as letters of the alphabet as per the Lakshmi Tantra. The letters are thus thought to emanate from Matrika-Shakti. According to the devanagari script, Brahmani is associated with the ka-varga out of the seven consonant groups.

Interestingly, Verse 13 to 21 of the Narayani Stuti that we find in Chapter 11 of the Devi Mahatmyam is dedicated to praise of the Saptamatrkas as seven aspects of Shri Narayani, the all-pervading Mother. Devi Brahmani here is praised as the radiant one who rides the celestial chariot yoked by pure, white swans thus representing the brilliance of a discriminative intellect that can help us overcome the overpowering nature of desires.

Thus, if we take a look at each symbolism of Brahmani, it is clearly related to the creative, nourishing and even liberating aspects of the Divine Shakti.

==== '''Who is Vaishnavi?''' ====
She is the Shakti of Vishnu and therefore the embodiment of creative sustenance. Adorned in bright yellow garments and ornaments identical to those of Vishnu's, she rides the mighty Garuda. Two of her hands carry the Shankha and Chakra and two are in the Abhaya and Varada Mudra.

On her banner too resides Shri Garuda and the kirita-mukuta adorns her head while her neck sports the beautiful Vanamala that is Mahavishnu’s characteristic. When we speak about the symbolism of the cyclic process of creation and destruction we have, Vaishnavi is the preserver. In the sculpting of the Saptamtrikas too, she is in the center flanked on two sides by three Matrikas each.

As per Tantra-shastras, Vaishnavi rules over moha or delusion which obstructs the seeker’s vision of reality. Her energy sustains this fascinating creation and keeps us glued to its plays in our lives. However, when a Sadhaka worships her, she bestows upon him the grace that breaks all delusion and rips away the attachments it causes. When Brahmani destroys desire and Vaishnavi breaks our delusion, two most powerful obstacles are cleared in the seeker’s journey to the Divine Mother - Shri Lalita Ambika.

According to the Yogic tradition, she rules over the Anahata Chakra and her energy pervades up to the Muladhara. This is where the three upper and three lower chakras meet. Here she bestows great spiritual prowess upon the seeker. Only, he needs to be prepared and earnest in order to enter the dimension of the Anahata. For this once again, the quality of discerning between what is real and unreal is essential. Only then delusion ends!

In Ayurveda, Devi Vashnavi rules over medha or fat which is the source of nourishment and protection from wear and tear for the body. It also incorporates the stabilizing and grounding aspects of earth alongside the fluidity of water which sustains the living being.

In the alphabets of the Devanagari, Vaishnavi is associated with the Tha-varga and she guards the city of Tripura in the south.

Devi Vaishnavi is thus the embodiment of abundance and sustenance like Devi Mahalakshmi and in the Narayani Stuti, she is hailed as the most excellent and abundant one, sporting the glorious shankha, chakra, the mace and the dhanu.

Authored by Lakshmi Sivaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

The Saptamatrkas, An Exploration of Narratives Part 1

2024-07-19T20:47:00Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " This article is an exploration into the tradition of the Saptamatrkas - the mother-like goddesses who hold symbolic relevance in both worship and Indian sculptural art. From the narratives across the Puranas, Tantra-shastras, Yoga and folk cultures, one derives a multifaceted understanding of the nature and functions of the Saptamatrkas. At the center lies the narrative of evolving consciousness. The 7 mother-like goddesses trace their origins to the Puranas and th..."

Why The Indian Knowledge Systems for Global Futures Part 2

2024-07-19T20:42:07Z

Akshayjha:

==== IKS in Action ====
Apart from the classical arts with their dance, music, martial arts etc IKS constitutes many other areas of knowledge too that we see all around us. From the grand temples of Modhera, Martand, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and Thiruvananthapuram to the Root Bridges of Meghalaya, the Siddha medicine of Tamil Nadu, anything that is replicable, scalable and is universally applicable is IKS in action. We practice this in our daily lives too when we learn an age-old recipe from our grandmother, or try a local herbal treatment to treat our cough. We propagate IKS when we wear handloom textiles, or wear authentic regionally designed jewelry or perform our weddings as per vaidika mores. Each area is a world in itself. When we look at the temples for example:

“They include numerous and voluminous texts dealing with the temple tradition — construction, art and architecture, iconography of the images, as well as the daily, fortnightly, monthly, and annual rituals and festivals observed in the temples. Above all, they discuss the underlying philosophy of the entire system. The Āgama literature divides into Śaiva (pertaining to lord Śiva); Vaiṣṇava (pertaining to lord Viṣṇu); Śākta (pertaining to goddess Śakti); Bauddha; and Jaina Āgamas.”

This article offers an overview of IKS meant not just for Indians who want to know more about their heritage and how it will be applicable to their lives but also for those interested in alternative ways of being, of thinking and learning. For people who want to bring in some meaning to their BANI-VUCA (brittle anxious neurotic indefinite volatile unstable chaotic ambiguous) life. This is the post COVID world and there are very few answers. One of the very few time tested answers to live a fulfilling life with growth, prosperity and self actualization has been proven time and again in the sacred land of Bharat. The broad overview presented here will enable readers to choose a different educational methodology for their children, a holistic pedagogy that allows them to bloom to their full potential. It will enable educators to break free from an either-or exclusive approach and take up an and/too inclusive approach.

==== Establishing the Case - Criticality of IKS for Society ====
A. S. Altekar says that the objective of Vedic education was to approach knowledge as:<blockquote>“..a third eye of man, which gave him insight into all affairs and taught him how to act. In the spiritual sphere, it led to salvation; in the mundane sphere, it led to all-round progress and prosperity…”</blockquote>IKS systems focus on joy first and foremost as they are rooted in consciousness that is described as sat-cit-ananda, aananda being joy. For which there is no opposite, as it is poorNam complete in itself. This pedagogy is rooted in inclusivity, plurality and one-ness. Stressing the need for diversity, allowing all forms of thoughts and belief systems their place under the sun, yet maintaining that all this is manifestation of the one and only focuses on Integral Unity (Being Different, Rajiv Malhotra) rather than force fitting a synthetic unity on two irreconcilable thought streams.

==== Defining the Indian Knowledge Systems ====
India: bhaarata desha is defined as the tract of land with Himalayas to the north and the oceans to the south: <blockquote>uttaram yatsamudrasya himadraishchaiva dakshinam

varsham tatbhaaratam naama bharati yatra santatihi</blockquote>Knowledge: vidya and jnana are two words that are common in bhaarateeya languages, evolving from the root word vid: jnanae, vicharanae, laabhae. Thus vidya is that which is to be known, is to be reflected upon and is useful. While jnana is vidya with awareness from the root ‘jna’ to know. The knowledge itself is divided into infinite knowledge of the Self - para vidya and the finite knowledge of the world - apara vidya. These appear both as literary and non- literary traditions. The literary traditions are the 14 vidyasthanas (details) and the non-literary are the oral traditions, folklore, traditional medicinal practices etc. There are also archaeological and epigraphical sources available. IKS is defined as the umbrella term for the indigenous knowledge that took root and flowered in the Indian subcontinent and includes the knowledge systems produced and practiced by all the dharma panthas (Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs), along with that of all the janajatis and vanavasis.

==== The Hierarchy of IKS: ====
adhyatma vidyaa (para) leads to shreyas, long term permanent gain - underlying wisdom of consciousness

14 vidyaasthaanas (apara) leads to preyas, long term temporary gain - theoretical wisdom impacting application

kalaa (apara) leads to preyas, long term temporary gain - based on skills and practice

This is education for the whole being and also for sustainability.

Systems: Since this vast amount of knowledge in various streams has been codified and classified with a definitive framework we call these as systems. And all the streams in these systems are complete in themselves, compact and also interconnected, paving the way of interdisciplinary studies.

The IKS systems have been kept alive by two unique pedagogical methods: guru-shishya parampara and vrddha vyavahara. The gurukula system was prevalent all across the sub continent with a school in every village funded and patronized by the village community itself. As per Dharampal’s The Beautiful Tree, a compilation of records from the British Gazettes of that time (from the Bengal and Madras Presidency), students from shoodra jati outnumbered those of the braahmaNas which can come as a surprise to many. The students were also taught Maths, Sciences, Language along with their religious texts. Thus the knowledge flowed downstream from the teacher to the student and permeated the whole land.

Knowledge was also shared informally in families which practiced a certain profession hereditarily, similar to the guilds of Germany such as shreni, sangha or gana of traders; weaving, goldsmithy, blacksmithy, agriculture, temple building, vedic chanting…and so on, all owe their knowledge pool and intellectual property to their ancestors, which gave them an unbroken knowledge tradition for safekeeping along with a non-competitive profession. Craftsmen and agriculturists were powerful organizations that shared information and resources and were more often than not very well to do.

This was before the British uprooted such gurukulams from every village and replaced it with the Macaulay recommended standard schooling system, which then started the rat race that we know of today- to learn English and get into the civil service to become a clerk and mimic the colonizer. Alas! It continues to this day. Which is where the intervention by the NEP 2020 is a welcome sign.

That India had perhaps the oldest and most enduring traditional system of education and that it was subject to multiple attacks is now known (Singh, 2022). However, what is relatively not appreciated is that the gurukulas of bhārata continue to thrive despite resistance in mainstream society. In fact they are now growing in number and innovation, once again. Before we get to public policy, let us understand the perspective of the gurukula teaching and the intergenerational knowledge flow that happened uninterrupted for thousands of years in this bharata, and continues to this day.

This is the dharma dRShTi with which every act was acted upon. This gives the IKS systems a just and righteous worldview, with which an individual’s conduct is measured, leading to a society and culture which bases itself on humane values. Keeping dharma as central to one’s being, one pursues the life’s goals enumerated as purusharthas in shaastra: dharma, artha, kaama, moksha. All humans crave for security and pleasure, and need it to survive, but doing so with righteousness is what dharma professes and after having done so, it shows us yet another goal that is unique to IKS - moksha.

This is liberation, it is freedom, in the here and now. shaastra tell us that anyone can be free from the cycle of birth and death, from the vagaries of this world this samsara, by adhering to a certain saadhana, having bhakti, doing karma yoga and applying yama-niyamas to rid oneself of raag-dvaeShas, such that one is eligible for jnana and thus moksha. To be free from any want, to be free from fear and insecurity is possible when we know that there is no other, dvaitaad vai bhayam bhavati - such a promise is permanent, it is not a temporary heavenly abode that one visits, this is a permanent awareness of oneness, that can usher in peace, harmony and love in this world.

IKS stresses on harmony with oneself, with others, and with the environment, by being more of a contributor rather than being only a consumer and also focussed on personal transformation via experiential knowledge practices. This is therefore very much in tune with the philosophy of oneness that it presupposes - the oft quoted ‘unity in diversity’ is in fact a reality that is extolled by our upanishads.

Authored by Kavita Krishna Meegama.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

Why The Indian Knowledge Systems for Global Futures Part 2

2024-07-19T20:42:02Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== IKS in Action ==== Apart from the classical arts with their dance, music, martial arts etc IKS constitutes many other areas of knowledge too that we see all around us. From the grand temples of Modhera, Martand, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and Thiruvananthapuram to the Root Bridges of Meghalaya, the Siddha medicine of Tamil Nadu, anything that is replicable, scalable and is universally applicable is IKS in action. We practice this in our daily lives too when we learn an..."

Why Indian Knowledge Systems for Global Futures Part 1

2024-07-19T20:40:24Z

Akshayjha:

<blockquote>भद्रायां सुमतौ यतेम | ऋग्वेद (६।१।१०)

[Let us strive for the wisdom that leads to the welfare of all]</blockquote>There is a global meta crisis and the world is looking at healthier alternatives to loneliness, depression, violence, Big Tech, Big Pharma, and how not to be made redundant by AI. But, we in India are proud parents to something called the Indian Knowledge Systems or IKS, which does exactly that, and more. For eons our ancestors have thought about not just the existential and spiritual questions for humankind, gifting the world with Yoga and Ayurveda, but they have also pondered deep into how not to over consume, how to keep our planet green, how to pass on ethics and know-how to the next generation by delving deep into science, arts and crafts. And they managed to do this with great attention to beauty. This was both theory and application, both shreyas and preyas. The sacred and the sensual were never divorced from one another. IKS fulfills our four human goals or purusharthas in a harmonious manner so as to not harm the universe. Let us explore this world then, all that it offers to us and what people have to say about it.

==== The Global Meta-Crisis ====
Today we stand in between two distinct worldviews: the collective and the individual. Leaders in public policy call this a multi-crisis where the individual is facing an endemic of loneliness and emptiness which is in turn fuelled by a culture of constant need for stimulation, a moral sanctioning of indulgence, and a complete disregard for the macro-cosmos within which we are situated.

Even as phone screens are connecting people virtually, a crisis of stress, depression and anxiety is increasing globally. In India, statistics tell us that almost 50 million have either depression or crippling anxiety.

The situation we find ourselves in presently, is a consequence of structures that place human desire and will above all else and seek to displace the human mind from the tradition and cultural context that provides it the stability and freedom that it seeks.

For India, which essentially has had a distinct metaphysics and long-standing cultural praxis, it is the burden of coloniality and continued apathy towards our knowledge traditions for a long time that has cut us off from accessing them and growing to ape the Western world.

However, we are also witnessing a parallel shift both within Bhārata and elsewhere. A part of us is awakening to the reality that there is a chasm between what has percolated into our educational and political institutions and what has authentically developed as an integral part of bhāratīya civilization.

==== Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) to the Rescue ====
In one of their reports, the World Bank says that the jobs of the future will require students to be able to interpret information, form opinions, be creative, communicate well, collaborate and be resilient. How can IKS fill the gap? The greatest gift that a young person can bring to the table is a sound, creative mind. Which is exactly what IKS does, it helps an individual to develop a sound and creative mind; via the praxis of vrata-saadhana-utsava - inbuilt cultural mechanisms for regular sensory and mental regulation and refinement of internal subjectivity, by anviksiki - rigorous intellectual training that allows self-reflexivity and one’s thoughts, words and deeds to be on the path of dharma. Through generative understanding of human mind and behavior and the inter-disciplinary and integral nature of exploration of knowledge systems. It does this with its quest for knowledge anchored in ethics along with positive collective feedback loops. There are pathways for integral well-being and attaining deeper states of joy. There is emphasis on the cultivation of aesthetic, socio-cultural, psychological, political and spiritual intelligences through the study of shastras such as natyashastra, tarkashastra, yogasutras, ashtyadhyayi, itihasa-purana etc.

The term jñāna denotes a state of unbounded joy attained through embodied knowledge of sat. It is a state where our intellect is immersed in the ultimate state of happiness. In bhārata therefore, knowledge is not only the source of skills and material abundance but has primarily been considered the greatest purifier of one's consciousness.

==== Knowledge as the Highest Goal ====
Our shastras are filled with such examples - of reflection, contemplation, of deep diving into the reality of human consciousness. We are a people who celebrate guru poornima, adore Sarasvati and chant the Medha sooktam. One of our sixteen samskaras includes vidyarambham as well as upanayanam. In short our culture revolves around knowledge - seeking, gaining, disseminating it. Our civilization gave it the highest place, our highest goal was knowing the Self. Knowing which surprisingly all else is indeed known.

Indian Knowledge Systems are Bharata’s best practices; some lost, some that survive, despite various attempts at murder by Islamic and Christian colonization, that are universal, pluralist, and rooted in joy.

These include our philosophies, systems of yoga, grammar, language, logic, debate, poetics, aesthetics, cosmology, mythology, ethics, literature of all genres from poetry to historical tradition, performing and non-performing arts, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, chemistry, metallurgy, botany, zoology, geology, medical systems, governance, administration, water management, town planning, civil engineering, ship making, agriculture, polity, martial arts and more.

Learning of the above and keeping it alive was a decentralized, self-organizing, self-perpetuating, societal structure for thousands of years. This was made possible via chants, songs, stories, drama and other oral traditions across the length and breadth of bhaaratadaesha. Our knowledge of ourselves, including history and literature was transmitted seamlessly in this manner.

The magic of the IKS systems is such that most of it is alive even today, thousands of years later! These systems and their applications were responsible for India’s prosperity until the 18th century. C.E. India, as we know, was the leading economy worldwide along with China until then. Naganika’s inscription at Naneghat, Kharavela’s inscription at Hathigumpha, the Prayaga Prashasti and many such inscriptions, all document the social realities of their times and give us proof of our prosperity.

The highly abstract and conceptual knowledge from; the Vedas, upavedas, shad-darshanas, shad-angas, smrtis, agamas, dharmashaastra, nyayashastra, tantrashastra, that which is applicable in daily life, has been condensed, codified, and presented in a relatable manner for the general public via itihasa and puranas. Upanishads have the various bhashyas, as auxiliary and secondary texts to assist in comprehending them in the correct manner as they are meant to.

IKS is a wholesome top-down model that looks at the big picture - where the empirical and the transcendent are both covered before going into individual idiosyncrasies, giving it a strong foundation. It explains the non-material world too and helps us access it. Unlike the Western knowledge systems which are bottom-up are more structured but start with the individual and unfortunately cannot comprehend the whole collectively. The focus on matter and the material world is eliminative and exclusive. It makes it impossible to be holistic.

Authored by Kavita Krishna Meegama.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

Why Indian Knowledge Systems for Global Futures Part 1

2024-07-19T20:40:12Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "<blockquote>भद्रायां सुमतौ यतेम | ऋग्वेद (६।१।१०) [Let us strive for the wisdom that leads to the welfare of all]</blockquote>There is a global meta crisis and the world is looking at healthier alternatives to loneliness, depression, violence, Big Tech, Big Pharma, and how not to be made redundant by AI. But, we in India are proud parents to something called the Indian Knowledge Systems or IKS, which does exactl..."

World Civilizations: Mesopotamia, Part 14 - Covenant and Lessons

2024-07-19T20:37:16Z

Akshayjha:

==== The Notion of a “Covenant” ====
Now, we will study a very important aspect of life in the Ancient Near East that has huge implications for the biblical tradition (6). It is the notion of the covenant. A covenant is basically a legally binding agreement signed between two parties who are unequal - an overlord and a vassal. It is to be understood in a feudal context - the overlord agrees to grant protection to the vassal if he submits to him and to punish the vassal if he disobeys him - and the covenant agreement contains the details of what the vassal and overlord are expected to do. Covenants are widely attested in the Mesopotamian archaeological record from about 2500 BCE onwards. Even the later Hittite Empire used the Mesopotamian Covenant model in all its treaties between the ruler and his subjects. A typical covenant consists of six parts.

# Preamble- the part where the overlord defines himself and gives his titles.
# Historical prologue - where the overlord defines his previous achievements and hence why he is capable.
# Stipulations - this part contains the DOs and DON’Ts of both the parties.
# Deposition - this part tells when and how the text of the treaty is to be displayed periodically for the constant reminder of it.
# Witnesses - this part contains the witnesses (typically gods who act as divine witnesses) on whom the covenant is sworn.
# Blessings & Curses - Finally there is a list of rewards for obedience to the covenant and curses for disobedience to the covenant.

An integral part of all such covenants is the stipulation the vassal show loyalty exclusively, only to the lord and avoid submitting to other overlords who are out there. That is, the overlord expects that his vassals align only to him in this covenantal framework.

What happens very strangely in the Jewish tradition is that the Israelites model the relationship between their national god (Yahweh, the God of the Bible) and themselves as a covenant relationship where the Israelites see themselves as the vassals and their God is the overlord. The Israelites are described in the Bible as “bene ha-berit (Hebrew: Children of the Covenant)”. The word “covenant” in Latin becomes “testamentum” from which we get the phrases “Old Testament” and “New Testament”. All the six parts of the covenant are attested in the Bible.

Preamble - “I am Yahweh, your God…” - Exodus 20:2a. Here God is introducing himself.

Historical prologue - “…who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” - Exodus 20:2b. Here, God is saying his achievement - that he has brought the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and hence he is establishing this covenant with the Israelites.

Stipulations - The books of Exodus from Chapter 20 and that of Leviticus and Deuteronomy are full of stipulations that the Israelites have to keep which include the famous ten commandments, the kosher dietary regulations and keeping the sabbath and so on.

Depositions - “At the end of every seven years, in the year for canceling debts, during the Festival of Tabernacles, when all Israel comes to appear before the Lord your God at the place he will choose, you shall read this law before them in their hearing. Assemble the people—men, women and children, and the foreigners residing in your towns — so they can listen and learn to fear the Lord your God and follow carefully all the words of this law. Their children, who do not know this law, must hear it and learn to fear the Lord your God as long as you live in the land you are crossing the Jordan to possess.” - Deuteronomy 31:9-13. This is an example of a covenant reading ceremony where the text of the covenant is read out loud to all the Israelites to remind them of the covenantal relationship.

Witnesses - As said before, usually the witnesses are the gods of the co-signatories. Given Israel’s lack of other gods, the Bible improvises: Josh. 24:22 has the people function as both signatories and witnesses. Sometimes natural phenomena are also used as witnesses. Eg. “And Joshua … took a great stone, and set it up under the oak in the sanctuary of the Lord. And Joshua said to all the people: ‘Behold! This stone shall be a witness against us, for it has heard all the words of the Lord which he spoke to us.” - Joshua 24:27.

Blessings & Curses - Finally, the end of the book of Deuteronomy is full of blessings and curses. For example - “If you obey the voice of the Lord your God, being careful to do all the commandments … blessed will you be in the city and blessed will you be in the field.” - a blessing in Deuteronomy 28:1. For an example of a curse - “If you do not obey the voice of the Lord your God or be careful to do all his commandments … cursed shall you be in the city, and cursed shall you be in the ¿eld … in all that you undertake to do, until you are destroyed and perish quickly … The Lord will smite you with the boils of Egypt, and with the ulcers, and the scurvy, and the itch of which you cannot be healed…” - Deuteronomy 28:15.

I mentioned that an integral part of covenant is exclusive obedience - a vassal can allege himself only to one overlord and will be punished by him if he obeys himself to another overlord. Since the Israelites saw the relationship between themselves and their national god as a covenant - this means that the Israelites are not allowed to worship other gods. This is made explicit in the first of the ten commandments - “You shall have no other gods before me; you shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them.” - Exodus 20:3-6. Note here that God does not say that there are no other gods; it is implied that other gods exist to whom people can worship - but the Israelites are supposed to worship only the God to whom they have a covenant with - Yahweh. This is not monotheism (one god only exists) but monolatry (worship of one god while acknowledging the existence of other gods). So, ancient Israelite religion was not monotheistic - it became monotheistic only later in the age of prophets about which we will study in detail when we discuss Jewish civilization exclusively. You might ask - why did the Israelites model the relationship with the divine as a covenant when no other peoples around them did. This will also be seen in detail when we discuss Jewish civilization. So, Judaism sees its entire history in the covenantal framework - Israel suffers or prospers depending on its commitment to keeping the covenant.

==== Lessons For Us ====
What lessons can we learn for us and how will this information help us in our intellectual fight for our dharma? I give some of them below but think yourself too:

* Two language families but one civilization: Next time when a proponent of the Dravidian movement argues that since Indo-Aryan and Dravidian are two completely distinct unrelated language families and hence cannot be a part of a single civilization, tell them about this Mesopotamian example where in two language families co-existed with each one having its own role and their two cultures merging into one and with each language being the mirror of the other, in expressing the common civilizational language! We will see more such examples later in other civilizations but Mesopotamia is an amazing example with lots of documented sources to work with. Although Egypt, China and Greece were linguistically homogeneous, these are not the only models of civilization. Cultural and linguistic boundaries need not coincide with civilizational boundaries.
* Writing vs Speech: The primacy given to the written word in Mesopotamian civilization should give a good contrast to the primacy given to the spoken word in Indian civilization. One sees how Sumerian got studied and perfected and took over the role that Sanskrit played in Indian civilization but one sees that they achieve it differently - writing vs speaking. How this affects their philosophy of language is also a nice question to think about.
* Comparative Law & Comparative History: Another exercise one can take up is comprehensive study of legal systems. We as a civilization have faced constant criticism of our legal texts like Manusmṛti. It is highly essential for us to undertake a comparative study of various legal systems of various world civilizations to demonstrate how the Indian laws and the conducts of Indian kings are more humane. The horrific massacre that ensued when the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal conquered various territories for the resurgent Assyrian empire and punished rebels, finds no parallel in India. The eye-for-eye principle in Mesopotamian law which reflects in the Biblical law code is important to know of. It does indeed reflect a mindset of revenge. Also, studying Mesopotamian law codes is important in tandem with the Bible which will tell us how much the Biblical material owes to its Mesopotamian predecessors and in what all aspects it has innovated.
* Similarities: A comprehensive comparative study of all civilizations has shown me how the two Abrahamic evangelizing faiths are of an entirely different nature from the rest of the ancient civilizationally rooted faiths. In the present global world, a polytheistic, idol-worshiping, nature-worshiping, ancestor-worshiping Hindu like us are the minority and the outliers in a geopolitics dominated by Christianity and Islam. Hindu apologists have always defended and continued to defend their faith by trying to make Hinduism look like a monotheistic faith or to mold it into a monotheistic faith but it is high time we stop being apologetic. By studying ancient civilizations, one gets how 2000 years ago, most of the world was indeed like us and there is nothing unusual or inferior about idol worship or believing in myths or having a philosophy and worldview in harmony with one’s religions and traditions. It is the Christians and Muslims who are unusual as they defy these ancient orders to build something new and they have made the only surviving ancient civilization (Hindu civilization) look abnormal as they have successfully managed to destroy all other civilizations or atleast sever their connection to their past through Christianity or Islam or Communism.

==== References ====
Exodus 21:23-27

Exodus 21:35

The Code of Hammurabi

David P Wright, “Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible used and revised the laws of Hammurabi” , Oxford University Press, 2009

The Code of Hammurabi

Biblical Covenants in Their Ancient Near Eastern Context

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

World Civilizations: Mesopotamia, Part 14 - Covenant and Lessons

2024-07-19T20:37:12Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== The Notion of a “Covenant” ==== Now, we will study a very important aspect of life in the Ancient Near East that has huge implications for the biblical tradition (6). It is the notion of the covenant. A covenant is basically a legally binding agreement signed between two parties who are unequal - an overlord and a vassal. It is to be understood in a feudal context - the overlord agrees to grant protection to the vassal if he submits to him and to punish the vass..."

World Civilizations: Mesopotamia, Part 13 - Written Law Code

2024-07-19T20:34:57Z

Akshayjha:

==== Written Law Codes ====
Today most countries have written legal codes and they have become the norm. But this was not the case in a larger civilisational context. Egypt did not have a written law code as we shall see in the next article. Mesopotamia was the first civilization to come up with an explicitly written code of law. There are so many famous law codes instituted by various rulers - for example: Ur-Namma [2100 BCE] and Lipit Eshtar [1870 BCE] (in Sumerian language), Dadusha [1800 BCE] and Hammurabi [1750 BCE] (in Akkadian language). There are also fragments of other law codes. The most prominent among them is the code of Hammurabi because it is the most extant and best preserved. Even though it was Hammurabi himself who wrote his law code, he credited its authorship to the god Marduk, the patron god of the city of Babylon.

All these law codes have a general feature - they are retaliatory. Basically under this system of justice, what you do to someone is done back to you as justice - so it is a retaliatory law code. For example, some laws from Hammurabi read as follows:<blockquote>196: If a man has destroyed the eye of a man of the gentleman class, they shall destroy his eye.

197: If a man breaks another man’s bone, his bone shall be broken.

200: If a man knocks out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.</blockquote>This is the origin of the phrase “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a hand for a hand, a foot for a foot” which made its way into the Hebrew Bible (1) and from there, to the Western civilization.<blockquote>But if there is serious injury, you have to take life for life, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a hand for a hand, a foot for a foot, a burn for a burn, a wound for a wound, a bruise for a bruise.

(Bible) Exodus 21:23-25</blockquote>One fascinating area of comparative study is the extent to which Mesopotamian law codes have influenced the law codes of the Jewish Bible. These resemblances look uncanny and definitely there is an influence from the Mesopotamian legal tradition on the later Hebrew civilization. Some comparisons are given below:

One can expect that laws like do not murder or commit adultery are pretty universal principles and hence are expected to be the same across all cultures even without one influencing the other. But there are other specific laws that look arbitrary but are carried forward exactly from the Mesopotamian tradition to the Biblical tradition.

Eshnunna 53: If an ox gored another ox and caused its death, the owners of the oxen shall divide between them the sale value of the living ox and the carcass of the dead one.

Bible - Exodus 21:35 - If anyone’s ox injures someone else’s ox and it dies, the two parties are to sell the live one and divide both the money and the dead animal equally1 (2)

The epilogue of Hammurabi’s and other law codes end with prosperity for those who obey the law and curses for those who disobey (3). So does the Mosaic law in the book of Exodus in the Bible. There are entire books written on this subject of the relation between the Mesopotamian and Hebraic legal traditions (4). This is not surprising because Mesopotamian culture spread throughout the Middle East and influenced several other later civilizations. The Bible tells us that the ancestor of the Hebrew peoples - Abraham - is originally from the city of Ur in Mesopotamia. This mostly reflects a pre-historic memory of the Israelites in Mesopotamia. Also, the Jews were exiled to Babylon in the neo-Babylonian empire in the sixth century BCE.

For now, let us focus on where the fundamental “eye for eye” principle takes us. There are some laws that sound irrational and weird when viewed alone but are a logical consequence of taking the eye for eye principle to its extreme. For example, law 230 in Hammurabi states that if a house that a builder builds, collapses and kills the son of the owner, then the builder’s son will be put to death. One might ask what mistake did the son make - why is the son of the builder punished instead of the builder himself? But it is a casual consequence of the eye-for-eye principle between the builder and the owner of the house he built. If the owner is killed by the house falling, then the builder of the house is killed for retaliation. If the owner loses his son, then the son of the builder is killed so that the builder experiences the same fate as the owner. This causal chain is evident in the way and the sequence in which the law is stated (5).

Hammurabi 229: If a builder builds a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls in and kills its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.<blockquote>Hammurabi 230: If it kills the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death.

Hammurabi 231: If it kills a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house.

Hammurabi 232: If it ruins goods, he shall make compensation for all that has been ruined, and in as much as he did not construct properly this house which he built and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his own means.</blockquote>At some times, the law seems just by modern standards but in other cases, it seems unequal (the punishment for harming a slave or a woman is lesser than that of harming a free man) and at some instances, barbaric with the eye-for-eye principle.

But we also have lots of documentations of legal cases surviving from Mesopotamian archaeology and we do not find any references to them being actually quoted or used. Also, the actual outcomes of these cases do not match with the prescription of the law codes. So what role did these law codes exactly play? Were they mere ideals or imaginations of kings? This topic is debated among scholarly circles of Mesopotamian history.

Ashurbanipal’s Library gives modern historians information regarding people of the ancient Near East. In his Outline of History, H. G. Wells calls the library “the most precious source of historical material in the world.”

==== References ====
Exodus 21:23-27

Exodus 21:35

The Code of Hammurabi

David P Wright, “Inventing God’s Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible used and revised the laws of Hammurabi” , Oxford University Press, 2009

The Code of Hammurabi

Biblical Covenants in Their Ancient Near Eastern Context

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

World Civilizations: Mesopotamia, Part 13 - Written Law Code

2024-07-19T20:34:45Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Written Law Codes ==== Today most countries have written legal codes and they have become the norm. But this was not the case in a larger civilisational context. Egypt did not have a written law code as we shall see in the next article. Mesopotamia was the first civilization to come up with an explicitly written code of law. There are so many famous law codes instituted by various rulers - for example: Ur-Namma [2100 BCE] and Lipit Eshtar [1870 BCE] (in Sumerian lan..."

Vanshavalis: Genealogies in the Hindu Puranas

2024-07-19T20:32:24Z

Akshayjha:

Vanshavalis, or genealogies, form a crucial component of the Hindu Puranas, providing detailed lineages of ancient dynasties, sages, and divine beings. These genealogies are not just historical records but are imbued with religious, cultural, and moral significance. They serve to connect the present with the mythic past, establishing the continuity of tradition and dharma (righteousness) across ages. This article details the concept of vanshavalis in the Hindu Puranas, their structure, significance, and the prominent lineages they describe.

==== Structure of Vanshavalis ====
Vanshavalis in the Puranas typically follow a structured format:

Progenitor: Each lineage begins with a progenitor, often a divine or semi-divine figure, who is regarded as the founder of the dynasty.

Successive Generations: The genealogy then lists the successive generations, including significant kings, sages, and other notable figures.

Narrative Interconnections: The genealogies often include narrative interconnections, detailing the significant events and stories associated with various individuals in the lineage.

Moral and Spiritual Lessons: Embedded within these genealogies are moral and spiritual lessons, reflecting the principles of dharma and the consequences of adhering to or deviating from it.

==== Significance of Vanshavalis ====
The genealogies in the Puranas hold multifaceted significance:

* Historical Record: Vanshavalis serve as a historical record, preserving the memory of ancient dynasties and notable figures. They provide insights into the political, social, and cultural history of ancient India.
* Religious Continuity: By tracing the descent of divine and semi-divine figures, these genealogies emphasize the continuity of religious traditions and the perpetuation of dharma across generations.
* Cultural Identity: Genealogies contribute to the cultural identity of communities, linking them to illustrious ancestors and divine beings.

* Moral Instruction: The stories embedded in these genealogies serve as moral instructions, illustrating the virtues of righteousness, devotion, and duty.

==== Prominent Genealogies in the Puranas ====
Several prominent genealogies are detailed in the Puranas, each associated with significant dynasties and figures in Hindu mythology and history. Here are some notable ones:

'''The Solar Dynasty (Suryavansha)'''

The Solar Dynasty, or Suryavansha, is one of the most illustrious lineages described in the Puranas. It is said to have originated from the Sun God, Surya, or Vivasvan. His son is Vaivasvata Manu - the ultimate progenitor of all dynasties in the 7th Manvantara. With Vaivasvata’s son, Ikshvaku, begins the Suryavansha dynasty proper.

Ikshvaku: The progenitor of the Solar Dynasty, Ikshvaku, is a significant figure, often associated with the establishment of the kingdom of Ayodhya.

Mandhatra: A chakravartin conqueror, he waged war on and defeated notable rulers in several other dynasties.

Sagara: Another prominent ruler, who revived the dynasty after its defeat to the Haihaya Yadavas. He resettled the scattered Suryavanshi people at Ayodhya.

Bhagiratha: Most known for having brought the Ganga back down to Earth through intense tapasya and penance.

Harishchandra: A notable king known for his unwavering commitment to truth and righteousness.

Rama: The most celebrated figure of the Suryavansha, Rama, the seventh avatar of Vishnu, whose story is detailed in the Ramayana.

'''The Lunar Dynasty (Chandravansha)'''

The Lunar Dynasty, or Chandravansha, traces its origins to the Moon God, Chandra.

Budha: Not to be confused with Gautama Buddha, this Budha is a progenitor of the Chandravansha.

Ila: Budha’s wife, and a daughter of Vaivasvat Manu. The Chandravansha is also called Ilavansha in her honor.

Pururavas: Ila’s son, and the attributed founder of the Chandravansha. Known for his love story with the celestial nymph Urvashi.

Yayati: A significant king whose story illustrates themes of desire, sacrifice, and duty. Listed as a chakravartin. From his 5 sons descend the pancha gana, or 5 tribes - Yadu, Druhyu, Anu, Turvasu, Puru.

'''The Dynasties of the Sages'''

The Puranas also detail the genealogies of sages, who played a crucial role in the transmission of knowledge and dharma.

Bhrigu: The progenitor of the Bhrigu lineage, associated with several significant sages and seers.

Vashishta: A revered sage whose descendants include many notable figures in Vedic and Puranic literature.

Agastya: Known for his contributions to Vedic literature and his role in the spread of Vedic culture to the southern regions of India.

'''The Yadava Dynasty'''

The Yadava dynasty is another prominent lineage detailed in the Puranas, associated with the Vrishni clan and Krishna.

Yadu: The progenitor of the Yadava dynasty.

Vasudeva: The father of Krishna.

Krishna: The central figure of the Yadava lineage, whose life and teachings are central to Hindu philosophy and devotion.

==== The Bhagavata Purana and Vanshavalis ====
The Bhagavata Purana, one of the most revered texts in Hinduism, provides extensive genealogies that trace the lineages of various dynasties and sages. It is particularly known for its detailed account of the Lunar Dynasty and the life of Krishna. The genealogies in the Bhagavata Purana serve to establish the divine origins of these lineages and underscore the themes of devotion (bhakti) and righteousness (dharma).

Vanshavalis in the Hindu Puranas are more than mere genealogical records; they are a tapestry of history, mythology, and moral instruction. By tracing the descent of kings, sages, and divine beings, these genealogies establish a connection between the past and the present, reinforcing the continuity of dharma and the cultural identity of communities. The detailed accounts of prominent lineages in the Puranas, such as the Solar and Lunar dynasties, provide valuable insights into the historical and spiritual context of ancient India. Through these genealogies, the Puranas offer a profound understanding of the cyclical nature of time, the importance of righteous living, and the enduring legacy of ancient traditions.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

Vanshavalis: Genealogies in the Hindu Puranas

2024-07-19T20:32:20Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " Vanshavalis, or genealogies, form a crucial component of the Hindu Puranas, providing detailed lineages of ancient dynasties, sages, and divine beings. These genealogies are not just historical records but are imbued with religious, cultural, and moral significance. They serve to connect the present with the mythic past, establishing the continuity of tradition and dharma (righteousness) across ages. This article details the concept of vanshavalis in the Hindu Puranas,..."

The Seventh Manvantara

2024-07-19T20:29:34Z

Akshayjha:

In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is an immense cycle of time presided over by a Manu, the progenitor and lawgiver of humanity. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. The seventh manvantara, also known as the Vaivasvata Manvantara, is of particular significance as it is the current cosmic age in which we live. This article explores the events, key figures, and cosmic significance of the seventh manvantara as described in various Puranic texts. The Vaivasvata Manvantara is named after its presiding Manu, Vaivasvata Manu, also known as Shraddhadeva or Satyavrata. This manvantara is of special importance in Hindu tradition because it encompasses the current period of human history and includes many of the most well-known mythological events and figures. Key features of the seventh manvantara include:

- The reign of Vaivasvata Manu

- The appearance of significant avatars of Vishnu

- The tales of numerous kings and sages central to Hindu mythology

==== Vaivasvata Manu: The Current Manu ====
Vaivasvata Manu, the seventh Manu, plays a crucial role in Hindu cosmology and mythology. His story is recounted in various Puranas, including the Matsya Purana, Bhagavata Purana, and Markandeya Purana. Key aspects of Vaivasvata Manu:

- Son of Vivasvan (the sun god) and Saranyu

- Also known as Shraddhadeva due to his devotion

- Saved from a great deluge by Vishnu's Matsya (fish) avatar

- Progenitor of the current race of humans

The story of Vaivasvata Manu and the great flood bears similarities to flood myths found in many world cultures, leading to comparative mythological studies.

==== The Great Deluge and Matsya Avatar ====
One of the most significant events associated with the beginning of the seventh manvantara is the story of the great deluge and Vishnu's Matsya avatar. This tale, found in texts like the Matsya Purana and Bhagavata Purana, describes how Vaivasvata Manu was warned of an impending flood and instructed to build a boat. Key elements of the story:

- Vishnu appears to Manu in the form of a small fish

- The fish grows to an enormous size and is revealed to be Vishnu

- Manu is instructed to tie the boat to the fish's horn during the flood

- The flood destroys all life, but Manu and selected species are saved

- After the flood recedes, Manu repopulates the Earth

This story is often interpreted as symbolizing the preservation of knowledge and life through cosmic cycles of creation and destruction.

===== The Saptarishi of the Seventh Manvantara =====
In each manvantara, seven great sages or rishis appear to guide humanity and preserve sacred knowledge. The Saptarishi of the seventh manvantara, as mentioned in texts like the Vishnu Purana, are:

1. Kashyapa

2. Atri

3. Vashishtha

4. Vishvamitra

5. Gautama

6. Jamadagni

7. Bharadvaja

These sages play crucial roles in many Puranic stories and are considered the patriarchs of various gotra lineages in Hindu society.

==== Deities and Celestial Beings ====
The seventh manvantara has its own set of deities, with Indra as the king of the gods. In this period, Indra is known as Purandara. The Puranas mention various groups of deities associated with this manvantara, including:

- The Adityas

- The Vasus

- The Rudras

- The Sadhyas

- The Maruts

- The Ashvins

These divine beings play significant roles in many mythological narratives of this period.

==== Major Avatars of Vishnu ====
The seventh manvantara is particularly rich in avatars of Vishnu. Some of the most significant incarnations associated with this period include:

a) Matsya: The fish avatar, associated with the great deluge at the beginning of the manvantara.

b) Parashurama: The warrior-sage who confronted corrupt Kshatriya rulers.

c) Rama: The protagonist of the Ramayana, considered the ideal king and man.

d) Krishna: A central figure in the Mahabharata and the speaker of the Bhagavad Gita.

e) Buddha: In some traditions, Buddha is considered an avatar of Vishnu.

f) Kalki: The future avatar who is prophesied to appear at the end of the Kali Yuga.

==== Significant Kings and Dynasties ====
Many of the most famous kings and dynasties of Hindu tradition are placed within the seventh manvantara. These include:

- The Solar Dynasty (Suryavansha), including Rama and his ancestors

- The Lunar Dynasty (Chandravansha), including Krishna and the Pandavas

- King Harishchandra, renowned for his truthfulness

- Emperor Bharata, after whom India is named 'Bharata'

- The Prajapatis, progenitors of various races and species

==== Philosophical and Spiritual Significance ====
The events and figures of the seventh manvantara hold deep philosophical and spiritual significance in Hindu thought:

- They provide examples of dharmic living and the consequences of adharma

- The avatars of Vishnu demonstrate divine intervention in worldly affairs

- The cyclical nature of the yugas reflects Hindu concepts of cosmic time

- Many stories serve as allegories for spiritual truths and moral lessons

==== Cultural Impact ====
The narratives of the seventh manvantara have had a profound impact on Indian culture:

- They form the basis of much of Hindu art, literature, and drama

- Many places in India are associated with events from these stories

- The characters serve as moral exemplars and cultural icons

- Festivals and rituals often commemorate events from this manvantara

==== Scientific and Historical Interpretations ====
While traditionally viewed as actual historical events, modern scholars often interpret the stories of the seventh manvantara in various ways:

- As allegorical representations of natural or astronomical phenomena

- As mythologized accounts of actual historical events

- As symbolic narratives encoding philosophical or psychological truths

- As a combination of historical memory, cultural evolution, and spiritual teaching

==== Comparative Mythology ====
Scholars have noted parallels between the events of the seventh manvantara and mythologies from other cultures:

- Flood myths similar to the story of Manu are found worldwide

- The concept of cyclical ages is present in many ancient traditions

- Divine incarnations or avatars appear in various religious systems

- Epic battles between good and evil are a common mythological theme

==== The End of the Seventh Manvantara ====
According to Puranic chronology, we are currently about 5,000 years into the Kali Yuga of the 28th cycle of yugas in this manvantara. The entire seventh manvantara is said to last for 71 cycles of four yugas.

The end of the manvantara is prophesied to involve:

- The appearance of Kalki, the final avatar of Vishnu in this manvantara

- A period of dissolution (pralaya)

- The beginning of the eighth manvantara under a new Manu

The seventh manvantara, as described in the Hindu Puranas, encompasses a vast span of mythological history rich with divine interventions, heroic sagas, and profound spiritual teachings. From the great deluge at its beginning to the prophesied appearance of Kalki at its end, this cosmic age provides the setting for many of the most beloved and influential stories in Hindu tradition. While the historical veracity of these accounts is a matter of faith and interpretation, their significance in shaping Hindu philosophy, ethics, and culture is undeniable. The tales of the seventh manvantara continue to inspire devotion, artistic expression, and spiritual inquiry, offering a complex mythological framework for understanding the human condition and our place in the cosmos. As we navigate our way through what is believed to be the Kali Yuga of this manvantara, these ancient narratives continue to provide guidance, comfort, and inspiration to millions, bridging the cosmic and the mundane in the grand cycle of Hindu cosmology.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Philosophy]][[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Seventh Manvantara

2024-07-19T20:29:28Z

Akshayjha:

The Seventh Manvantara

2024-07-19T20:29:23Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is an immense cycle of time presided over by a Manu, the progenitor and lawgiver of humanity. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. The seventh manvantara, also known as the Vaivasvata Manvantara, is of particular significance as it is the current cosmic age in which we live. This article explores the events, key figures, and cosmic significance of the seventh manvantara as described in various Puranic texts. The Vaivasv..."

The Middle Manvantaras

2024-07-19T20:26:52Z

Akshayjha:

In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is a vast cycle of time presided over by a Manu, the progenitor and lawgiver of humanity. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. This article explores the events and key figures of the 2nd through 6th manvantaras as described in the Puranas, ancient Hindu texts rich in mythological and cosmological narratives. Each manvantara follows a similar pattern, featuring:

- A presiding Manu

- Seven sages (Saptarishi)

- Various deities

- An incarnation of Indra (king of the gods)

- Avatars of Vishnu

==== The Second Manvantara: Svarochisha ====
Manu: Svarochisha

Saptarishi: Urja, Stambha, Prana, Dattoli, Rishabha, Nischara, and Arvarivat

Indra: Vipaschit

Deities: The Paravatas and Tushitas

Key Events and Figures:

a) Origin of Svarochisha Manu: The Markandeya Purana narrates that Svarochisha was born to the sage Agni and his wife Svarochi. His birth was miraculous, marked by an extraordinary brilliance, hence his name, which means "radiant."

b) The Tale of Suvrata: This manvantara features the story of King Suvrata, who performed great penances and attained liberation. His tale emphasizes the importance of devotion and austerity.

c) Vishnu's Avatar: During this period, Vishnu is said to have incarnated as Dattatreya, the sage-avatar born to Atri and Anasuya. Dattatreya is revered as a teacher of profound spiritual wisdom.

==== The Third Manvantara: Auttami ====
Manu: Auttami (or Uttama)

Saptarishi: Kaukundihi, Kurundi, Dalaya, Sankha, Pravahita, Mita, and Sammita

Indra: Sushanti

Deities: The Sudhamas, Satyas, Sivas, Pratardanas, and Vasavartis

Key Events and Figures:

a) The Reign of Auttami: Auttami Manu, known for his righteousness, established a period of great dharmic adherence. The Vayu Purana describes his era as one of prosperity and spiritual advancement.

b) The Story of Dhundhu: This manvantara includes the tale of the demon Dhundhu, who was eventually slain by the prince Kuvalayasva, an incarnation of Vishnu.

c) Emergence of Sacred Rivers: Some Puranic accounts associate this period with the manifestation of sacred rivers, emphasizing the purifying power of water in Hindu cosmology.

==== The Fourth Manvantara: Tamasa ====
Manu: Tamasa

Saptarishi: Jyotirdhama, Prithu, Kavya, Chaitra, Agni, Vanaka, and Pivara

Indra: Sibi

Deities: The Surupas, Haris, Satyas, and Sudhis

Key Events and Figures:

a) Origin of Tamasa Manu: The Markandeya Purana relates that Tamasa was born from Jyotis (light) and his wife Svarbhanu. His name, meaning "darkness," is interpreted as a reminder of the interplay between light and shadow in creation.

b) The Tale of Gajendra: This manvantara is famous for the story of Gajendra, the elephant king, who was saved by Vishnu from a crocodile. This tale, found in the Bhagavata Purana, illustrates the power of sincere devotion.

c) Vishnu's Avatar: Vishnu is said to have appeared as Hari in this manvantara, though details of this incarnation vary between texts.

==== The Fifth Manvantara: Raivata ====
Manu: Raivata (also known as Vibhu)

Saptarishi: Hirannyaroma, Vedasri, Urddhabahu, Vedabahu, Sudhaman, Parjanya, and Mahamuni

Indra: Vibhu

Deities: The Bhutarayas and Vaikunthas

Key Events and Figures:

a) Raivata's Journey: The Vishnu Purana tells how Raivata and his daughter Revati traveled to Brahma's realm and experienced time dilation, returning to Earth ages later. This story introduces concepts of relative time and cosmic scales.

b) The Marriage of Revati: Revati's marriage to Balarama, brother of Krishna, links this ancient manvantara to the more recent Dwapara Yuga, illustrating the cyclical nature of Hindu time.

c) Cosmic Alignments: Some texts associate this manvantara with significant astronomical events, though these are often interpreted symbolically rather than literally.

==== The Sixth Manvantara: Chakshusha ====
Manu: Chakshusha

Saptarishi: Sumedhas, Virajas, Havishmat, Uttama, Madhu, Abhinavas, and Sahishnu

Indra: Manojava

Deities: The Apyas, Prastutas, Bhavyas, Prithigas, and Lekhyas

Key Events and Figures:

a) Origin of Chakshusha Manu: The Markandeya Purana narrates that Chakshusha was born to Chakshu and his wife Akriti. His name relates to vision or perception, symbolizing clear understanding of dharma.

b) The Tale of Vena and Prithu: This manvantara features the story of the tyrannical King Vena and his virtuous son Prithu. Prithu, considered an avatar of Vishnu, is credited with introducing agriculture and social organization.

c) Cosmic Struggles: Some accounts place significant battles between devas (gods) and asuras (demons) in this period, reflecting the ongoing theme of cosmic balance and conflict.

==== Common Themes and Significance ====
a) Establishment and Preservation of Dharma: Each Manu is tasked with upholding cosmic and social order, often in the face of challenges.

b) Interplay of Divine and Human Realms: The narratives frequently feature interactions between gods, humans, and other beings, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all levels of existence.

c) Cyclic Nature of Time: The succession of manvantaras reinforces the Hindu concept of cyclic time, with patterns of creation, preservation, and dissolution repeating at various scales.

d) Importance of Devotion and Spiritual Practice: Many stories within these manvantaras highlight the power of bhakti (devotion) and tapas (austerity) in achieving spiritual goals.

==== Variations in Puranic Accounts ====
It's important to note that details of these manvantaras can vary between different Puranic texts. Some variations include:

- Names and numbers of deities

- Specific events attributed to each period

- Interpretations of the roles of various figures

These variations reflect the diverse traditions within Hinduism and the evolving nature of these narratives over time.

==== Interpretations ====
Some scholars have attempted to correlate the manvantaras with astronomical events or historical periods. However, these interpretations are speculative and not universally accepted. The vast time scales involved (each manvantara lasting over 300 million years) make literal historical interpretations challenging. Many modern scholars and Hindu thinkers interpret the manvantara accounts symbolically:

- The succession of Manus may represent evolving states of human consciousness

- The recurring conflicts between devas and asuras might symbolize internal psychological struggles

- The various deities could represent different aspects of natural or cosmic forces

These allegorical readings allow for the extraction of philosophical and spiritual insights from these ancient narratives. The 2nd through 6th manvantaras, as described in the Hindu Puranas, represent vast cycles of time filled with rich mythological narratives. These accounts serve multiple purposes within Hindu tradition: they provide a cosmic context for human existence, offer moral and spiritual teachings through allegorical tales, and contribute to the complex tapestry of Hindu mythology.

The recurring patterns across these manvantaras – the roles of the Manus, the Saptarishi, and the avatars of Vishnu – create a sense of cosmic order and purpose. At the same time, the unique events and figures in each manvantara add diversity and depth to the overarching narrative.

Whether interpreted literally, allegorically, or as a combination of historical memory and spiritual symbolism, these accounts continue to fascinate scholars, inspire devotees, and provide material for philosophical reflection. They form an integral part of the Hindu worldview, linking the mundane with the cosmic and the present with the unfathomably distant past.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Middle Manvantaras

2024-07-19T20:26:43Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is a vast cycle of time presided over by a Manu, the progenitor and lawgiver of humanity. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. This article explores the events and key figures of the 2nd through 6th manvantaras as described in the Puranas, ancient Hindu texts rich in mythological and cosmological narratives. Each manvantara follows a similar pattern, featuring: - A presiding Manu - Seven sages (Saptarishi) - Various..."

The Indian Divisions of Time

2024-07-19T20:24:05Z

Akshayjha:

The Indian concept of time is vast, cyclical, and intricate, rooted deeply in the Puranas. These texts, particularly the Bhagavata Mahapurana, delineate a comprehensive framework for understanding cosmic time cycles, known as Yugas, Kalpas, Manvantaras, and other significant divisions.

==== The Concept of Yugas ====
The Indian division of time is primarily structured around four Yugas or epochs:

Satya Yuga (Krita Yuga): 1,728,000 years.

The Satya Yuga is the age of truth and perfection, where Dharma (righteousness) prevails entirely. During this epoch, humanity is depicted as living in harmony, with virtue and wisdom at their peak. It is a golden age where people are inherently good, and the concept of evil is nearly non-existent.

Treta Yuga: 1,296,000 years.

The Treta Yuga witnesses a slight decline in righteousness, with Dharma standing on three legs instead of four. It is during this period that the epic narratives of the Ramayana occur, illustrating the battle between good and evil. This Yuga is marked by the advent of significant moral and spiritual lessons for humanity.

Dvapara Yuga: 864,000 years.

The Dvapara Yuga sees a further decline in virtue and an increase in human suffering. Dharma now stands on two legs. This epoch is known for the events of the Mahabharata, including the Bhagavad Gita, which provides profound philosophical teachings. The balance between good and evil becomes more pronounced, and the struggle for righteousness intensifies.

Kali Yuga: 432,000 years.

The Kali Yuga is the age of darkness and ignorance, where Dharma is reduced to one leg. This era is characterized by widespread moral decay, materialism, and a significant decline in spiritual values. It is believed that we are currently in the Kali Yuga, which began approximately 5,000 years ago.

The Maha Yuga: A complete cycle of the four Yugas is known as a Maha Yuga, totaling 4,320,000 years. The transition between these Yugas is not abrupt but gradual, with a dawn and dusk period marking the beginning and end of each Yuga.

==== Manvantara ====
A Manvantara is a larger cycle that consists of 71 Maha Yugas, equating to 306,720,000 years. Each Manvantara is ruled by a specific Manu, the progenitor of humanity. According to the Bhagavat Mahapuran, there are 14 Manvantaras in each Kalpa, with the current being the seventh, ruled by Vaivasvata Manu.

==== Kalpa ====
A Kalpa is a day in the life of Brahma, the creator, lasting 4.32 billion years (1,000 Maha Yugas). A Kalpa is further divided into 14 Manvantaras. The night of Brahma, known as a Pralaya, is of equal length. At the end of each Kalpa, a partial dissolution (Pralaya) occurs, leading to a state of rest before the next Kalpa begins.

Day and Night of Brahma: Brahma’s lifespan is described as 100 years, with each day (Kalpa) followed by a night of equal duration. This period is known as a Maha Kalpa, spanning 311.04 trillion years. At the end of Brahma’s lifespan, a complete dissolution (Maha Pralaya) occurs, after which a new Brahma is born, and the cycle recommences.

==== Time in Human Perspective ====
From a human perspective, the intricate divisions of time in Indian cosmology provide a framework for understanding the vastness of cosmic time. The Bhagavat Mahapuran emphasizes the cyclic nature of time, where creation, preservation, and dissolution are continuous processes. This cyclical view contrasts sharply with the linear perception of time prevalent in many other cultures.

==== Philosophical Implications ====
The Indian divisions of time reflect profound philosophical concepts:

# Impermanence: The cyclical nature of time underscores the impermanence of the material world. Everything in the universe, including cosmic epochs, undergoes a cycle of birth, existence, and dissolution.
# Karma and Dharma: The progression of Yugas illustrates the law of karma and the importance of dharma. Each Yuga’s characteristics are a result of the collective karma of beings, emphasizing the need for righteous living.
# Spiritual Evolution: Despite the decline in virtue across Yugas, Indian philosophy maintains that the soul’s journey is one of spiritual evolution. The cycles provide opportunities for learning and growth, ultimately leading towards moksha (liberation).
# Cosmic Order: The precise calculation of cosmic time divisions reflects the intricate order and balance inherent in the universe. This cosmic order is a manifestation of divine will, guiding the universe through its endless cycles.

==== Syncing Yugas and Manvantaras with Modern Time ====
As a means of cosmic time-keeping, there were many yuga layers- esoteric, astronomical, historic. Within the philosophical tradition, it is understood that different phenomena in reality are set to different time-scales. The division of a time-scale into four yugas is a general application, but the real dates and bands can only be talked of in specific applications. The four yugas of reality itself- or the life of Brahmā- are not the same as four yugas of a discernible period of human history.

It would have been entirely convenient for us, if the Purāṇas had limited yugas for cosmic scales and not talked of historic events in the same language- but such is not the case. In reality, the tradition tells us of both- a time-scale of 4.32 million years, and in which yuga was the Ṛgveda composed- for example. This makes the historical task much tougher, for no serious work can realistically consider Rāma to have lived more than 2 million years ago- which would be the case if we used the yuga framework at face value. There are various yuga-systems found in Indian tradition, including a 5-year yuga cycle. We may distinguish between two primary cycles- a long yuga cycle and a short yuga cycle. The long cycle is the face-value one, where a mahāyuga is of 4.32 million years. The short yuga cycle involves removing the “daivika” layer from the long cycle, and results in a mahāyuga of 12000 years.

As with yugas, to take the cosmic time-scale of manvantaras as a historical reference is approach-flawed at outset. If we map the layer as is, we find ourselves claiming that Svāyambhuva Manu, the first Manu, lived more than 8 billion years ago! Clearly there is an allegorical nature to the notion of manvantaras, even if in-principle we cannot deny that there might be a continuity of culture and transmission in human beings for hundreds of thousands of years. Remember that anatomically modern human beings have been around for more than 350,000 years- as capable as we are today. Surely they too told stories to their children, danced to tribal ballads around the camp-fire, had great rulers and ruthless villians, and lived lives as experientially rich as we might today. Even something as basic as the wheel- where the supposed intuition is only that a round object moves easier- could have occurred to any homo sapien at any point of time.

The Indian divisions of time, as outlined in the Bhagavat Mahapuran, offer a comprehensive and profound understanding of cosmic epochs. These divisions, from the Yugas to the Kalpas, encapsulate the cyclical nature of the universe and the philosophical tenets of impermanence, karma, and dharma. They serve as a reminder of the vastness of time and the continuous journey of the soul towards spiritual enlightenment. Through these intricate time cycles, Indianism provides a unique perspective on the nature of existence and the eternal rhythm of creation and dissolution.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Philosophy]]

The Indian Divisions of Time

2024-07-19T20:23:52Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " The Indian concept of time is vast, cyclical, and intricate, rooted deeply in the Puranas. These texts, particularly the Bhagavata Mahapurana, delineate a comprehensive framework for understanding cosmic time cycles, known as Yugas, Kalpas, Manvantaras, and other significant divisions. ==== The Concept of Yugas ==== The Indian division of time is primarily structured around four Yugas or epochs: Satya Yuga (Krita Yuga): 1,728,000 years. The Satya Yuga is the age of..."

The First Manvantara

2024-07-19T20:21:22Z

Akshayjha:

In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is an immense cycle of time marking the reign of a Manu, the progenitor of mankind. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. The Puranas, ancient Hindu texts, provide detailed accounts of these cosmic cycles and the events that unfold within them. This article examines the first manvantara, also known as the Svayambhuva Manvantara, named after its presiding Manu.

The first manvantara is of particular significance in Hindu mythology as it marks the beginning of the current kalpa, known as the Sveta Varaha Kalpa. It sets the stage for the cosmic drama that unfolds through subsequent manvantaras and establishes many of the fundamental patterns and archetypes that recur throughout Hindu cosmology.

Key features of the first manvantara include:

* The reign of Manu Svayambhuva
* The creation of the first humans and establishment of social order
* The appearance of the Saptarishi (Seven Sages)
* The manifestation of various deities, including Indra

* Significant events involving avatars of Vishnu

==== Manu Svayambhuva: The First Manu ====
At the heart of the first manvantara is Manu Svayambhuva, whose name means "self-born" or "self-existent." According to the Puranas, particularly the Matsya Purana and Vishnu Purana, Svayambhuva Manu emerged from Brahma, the creator god. He is considered the progenitor of humanity and the establisher of dharma (cosmic order and duty) in this cosmic cycle.

Svayambhuva Manu is described as a paragon of virtue and wisdom. He is said to have composed the Manusmriti, an ancient legal text that outlines social, moral, and ethical codes. This text, while controversial in modern times, was foundational in shaping Hindu society and law.

==== The Creation of Humanity ====
One of the primary roles of Svayambhuva Manu was to populate the earth. The Puranas describe how he and his wife Shatarupa gave birth to several children, including Priyavrata and Uttanapada (sons), Akuti, Devahuti, and Prasuti (daughters)

These children and their descendants became the progenitors of various lineages of humans, demigods, and other beings. The marriage of these children to various divine and semi-divine beings led to the intermixing of human and celestial bloodlines, a recurring theme in Hindu mythology.

==== The Saptarishi: Seven Sages of the First Manvantara ====
In each manvantara, seven great sages or rishis appear to guide humanity and preserve sacred knowledge. The Saptarishi of the first manvantara, as mentioned in texts like the Vishnu Purana, were:

1. Marichi

2. Atri

3. Angiras

4. Pulaha

5. Kratu

6. Pulastya

7. Vasishtha

These sages played crucial roles in the transmission of Vedic knowledge and the establishment of various spiritual traditions. They are revered as the patriarchs of numerous gotras (lineages) in Hindu society.

==== Deities and Celestial Beings ====
Each manvantara has its own set of deities, with Indra as the king of the gods. In the first manvantara, the Puranas mention various groups of deities, including:

- The Yamas

- The Tushitas

- The Satyas

- The Haris

- The Vaikunthas

- The Sadhyas

Indra, the king of the gods during this period, was known as Yajna. The exact nature and roles of these divine beings vary somewhat between different Puranic accounts, but they are generally described as benevolent forces supporting the cosmic order established by Manu Svayambhuva.

==== Major Events and Narratives ====
Several significant events and stories are set during the first manvantara, shaping the cosmic narrative:

'''The Churning of the Ocean (Samudra Manthan):'''

While some accounts place this event in the 6th manvantara, certain texts associate it with the first. This cosmic event involved gods and demons churning the primordial ocean to obtain amrita (the nectar of immortality) and other divine treasures.

'''The Tale of Dhruva:'''

The story of the boy prince Dhruva, who performed intense penance to gain an unshakeable position in the cosmos, is set during the reign of his father Uttanapada, son of Manu Svayambhuva.

'''The Primeval Forest (Naimisha Forest):'''

This sacred forest, where many Puranic tales are narrated, is said to have been established during the first manvantara as a site for religious sacrifices and spiritual discourse.

'''Deva-Asura Wars:'''

The Puranas speak of 14 great wars between the Devas and Asuras, which began in the 1st manvantara.

==== Establishment of Social and Cosmic Order ====
A key theme of the first manvantara is the establishment of order on both social and cosmic levels. This includes:

- The formation of the varna system (social classes)

- The codification of laws and ethical precepts

- The establishment of religious rituals and practices

- The delineation of the fourteen worlds (lokas) of the Hindu cosmos

These structures and systems, instituted under the guidance of Manu Svayambhuva, set the pattern for subsequent manvantaras and form the basis of Hindu cosmology and social philosophy.

==== Timespan and Cosmic Cycles ====
The duration of a manvantara is immense by human standards. According to traditional calculations:

- 1 manvantara = 71 chaturyugas (cycles of four ages)

- 1 chaturyuga = 4,320,000 human years

Thus, the first manvantara would have lasted approximately 306,720,000 years. However, it's important to note that these figures are often interpreted symbolically or allegorically rather than literally.

==== Transition to the Second Manvantara ====
The end of the first manvantara is marked by a period of dissolution (pralaya), after which the second manvantara, presided over by Svarochisha Manu, begins. The transition between manvantaras is described as a time of renewal and reconfiguration of the cosmic order.

==== Significance and Interpretations ====
The narratives of the first manvantara serve several purposes in Hindu thought:

- Cosmological: They provide a framework for understanding the vast cycles of time and the structure of the universe.

- Ethical: The stories and laws established during this period set standards for righteous behavior and social harmony.

- Spiritual: The tales of sages, gods, and avatars offer insights into the nature of divinity and paths to spiritual realization.

- Cultural: These narratives form a shared mythic background that has influenced art, literature, and philosophy throughout Indian history.

Modern scholars and some Hindu thinkers interpret these accounts metaphorically, seeing them as allegorical representations of natural processes or psychological truths rather than literal historical events.

==== Comparative Traditions ====
The concept of the first age or era of the world being a time of establishment and relative harmony is found in many mythological traditions worldwide. Some scholars have drawn parallels between the first manvantara and:

- The Golden Age of Greek mythology

- The Garden of Eden in Abrahamic traditions

- The "Age of Perfect Virtue" in Chinese Taoist thought

While these comparisons should not be overstated, they highlight common themes in how various cultures conceptualize cosmic and human origins.

The first manvantara, as described in the Hindu Puranas, represents a foundational period in the vast cycles of cosmic time. Through the figures of Manu Svayambhuva, the Saptarishi, various deities, and avatars of Vishnu, it establishes patterns of divine intervention, human society, and spiritual seeking that recur throughout Hindu mythology. While the literal historicity of these accounts is a matter of faith and interpretation, their significance in shaping Hindu thought and culture is undeniable. The narratives of the first manvantara continue to offer rich material for philosophical reflection, artistic expression, and spiritual inspiration in the modern world.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The First Manvantara

2024-07-19T20:21:12Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " In Hindu cosmology, a manvantara is an immense cycle of time marking the reign of a Manu, the progenitor of mankind. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) consists of 14 manvantaras. The Puranas, ancient Hindu texts, provide detailed accounts of these cosmic cycles and the events that unfold within them. This article examines the first manvantara, also known as the Svayambhuva Manvantara, named after its presiding Manu. The first manvantara is of particular significance in Hindu..."

Geography of the Puranas

2024-07-19T20:18:00Z

Akshayjha:

The Puranas provide a wealth of information not only on mythology, cosmology, and history but also on geography. These texts paint a vivid picture of the world as understood by ancient Indian scholars, blending empirical observations with mythological and religious elements. The geographical descriptions in the Puranas encompass the physical world, sacred landscapes, cosmological realms, and legendary places.

==== Structure of Puranic Geography ====
Puranic geography is divided into several interconnected layers:

# Bhu-mandala (Earth Disc): This concept depicts the Earth as a vast disc surrounded by concentric oceans and continents.
# Jambu-dvipa: The central continent in the Bhu-mandala, considered the most significant and sacred.
# Mountain Ranges: Various mountain ranges that serve as abodes for gods and sages.
# Sacred Rivers and Lakes: Water bodies of immense religious and cultural importance.
# Legendary Cities and Kingdoms: Locations tied to epic narratives and historical events.
# Cosmological Realms: Higher and lower worlds that extend beyond the physical Earth.

==== Bhu-mandala: The Cosmic Earth Disc ====
Bhu-mandala is a central concept in Puranic geography, describing the Earth as a circular disc with a series of concentric continents (dvipas) and oceans (samudras). This cosmic model reflects the ancient Indian understanding of the universe, merging physical geography with cosmology.

'''Seven Dvipas and Samudras:'''

# Jambu-dvipa: The innermost and most sacred continent, surrounded by the Salt Ocean (Lavana Samudra).
# Plaksha-dvipa: Encircled by the Sugarcane Ocean (Ikshu Samudra).
# Salmali-dvipa: Bounded by the Wine Ocean (Sura Samudra).
# Kusha-dvipa: Surrounded by the Clarified Butter Ocean (Ghrita Samudra).
# Krauncha-dvipa: Encircled by the Yogurt Ocean (Dadhi Samudra).
# Shaka-dvipa: Bounded by the Milk Ocean (Kshira Samudra).
# Pushkara-dvipa: Surrounded by the Sweet Water Ocean (Svadu Samudra).

These dvipas are often described with mythological and symbolic attributes, representing various aspects of the cosmos.

==== Jambu-dvipa: The Central Continent ====
Jambu-dvipa holds a central place in Puranic geography. It is divided into nine regions (varshas), each with its unique characteristics and significance.

# Bharata-varsha: The southernmost region, corresponding to the Indian subcontinent. It is considered the land of karma (action) and dharma (righteousness).
# Kimpurusha-varsha: North of Bharata-varsha, inhabited by celestial beings known as Kimpurushas.
# Hari-varsha: North of Kimpurusha-varsha, associated with the deity Narasimha.
# Ilavrita-varsha: The central region, dominated by Mount Meru, the cosmic axis.
# Ramya-varsha: North of Ilavrita-varsha, known for its beauty and prosperity.
# Hiranmaya-varsha: North of Ramya-varsha, associated with gold and wealth.
# Kuru-varsha: North of Hiranmaya-varsha, corresponding to the legendary land of the Kurus.
# Ketumala-varsha: West of Ilavrita-varsha, known for its inhabitants’ devotion to Vishnu.
# Bhadrasva-varsha: East of Ilavrita-varsha, associated with the sage Bhadrasva.

==== Mount Meru ====
Mount Meru, also known as Sumeru, is a pivotal feature in Puranic geography. It is depicted as a golden mountain at the center of Jambu-dvipa, serving as the axis mundi (cosmic axis) around which the world revolves. Meru is described as towering 84,000 yojanas (approximately 1,080,000 kilometers) high, with its summit reaching the heavens. The peak of Meru is the dwelling place of various gods, including Indra and Brahma. Meru is flanked by several sacred mountains, such as Mandara, Gandhamadana, and Vindhya, and is surrounded by celestial gardens and rivers.

==== Sacred Rivers and Lakes ====
Rivers and lakes hold immense religious and cultural significance in the Puranas. Some prominent ones are:

Ganga: The most sacred river, believed to have descended from the heavens to purify the Earth.

Yamuna: Associated with Krishna and revered for its purifying qualities.

Sarasvati: A now-mythical river once flowing through the Vedic heartland, symbolizing knowledge and wisdom.

Godavari, Narmada, and Kaveri: Other significant rivers, each with its legends and religious importance.

Manasarovar: A sacred lake in the Himalayas, considered the source of the rivers Sutlej and Brahmaputra.

==== Legendary Cities and Kingdoms ====
The Puranas describe numerous legendary cities and kingdoms, each with its historical and mythological significance. For example:

Ayodhya: The birthplace of Rama, central to the Ramayana.

Hastinapura: The capital of the Kuru kingdom, pivotal in the Mahabharata.

Dwarka: The kingdom of Krishna, submerged in the ocean after his departure.

Lanka: The golden city of Ravana, located on present-day Sri Lanka.

Indraprastha: The capital city established by the Pandavas.

==== Cosmological Realms ====
Beyond the physical Earth, the Puranas describe various higher and lower realms, reflecting the multi-layered structure of the cosmos.

* Swarga (Heaven): The abode of the gods, ruled by Indra, located on Mount Meru.
* Patala (Netherworld): The subterranean realms inhabited by serpents (nagas) and demons (asuras).
* Vaikuntha: The celestial abode of Vishnu, characterized by eternal bliss and devotion.
* Kailasa: The mountain abode of Shiva, located in the Himalayas.

==== Integration of Myth and Geography ====
The geographical descriptions in the Puranas seamlessly integrate myth and empirical observations. Sacred landscapes are often portrayed as the backdrop for divine activities, providing a sacred geography that influences religious practices and pilgrimages.

# Pilgrimage Sites: Many geographical features described in the Puranas are now prominent pilgrimage sites, such as Varanasi, Haridwar, and Rameswaram.
# Cultural Influence: The Puranic geography has profoundly influenced Indian culture, art, and literature, embedding the sacred landscapes in the collective consciousness.

The geography of the Puranas offers a unique blend of mythological, religious, and empirical elements, providing a comprehensive view of the world as perceived by ancient Indian scholars. From the cosmic disc of Bhu-mandala to the sacred rivers and legendary cities, these texts present a rich tapestry of geographical knowledge that continues to influence Hindu culture and spirituality. Through their intricate descriptions and symbolic representations, the Puranas convey the profound connection between the physical world and the divine, emphasizing the sacredness of the Earth and its landscapes.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

Geography of the Puranas

2024-07-19T20:17:52Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " The Puranas provide a wealth of information not only on mythology, cosmology, and history but also on geography. These texts paint a vivid picture of the world as understood by ancient Indian scholars, blending empirical observations with mythological and religious elements. The geographical descriptions in the Puranas encompass the physical world, sacred landscapes, cosmological realms, and legendary places. ==== Structure of Puranic Geography ==== Puranic geography..."

Ancient Chakravartins

2024-07-19T20:13:55Z

Akshayjha:

In the Puranas and the Mahabharata, there are sixteen legendary emperors known as Chakravartins or Shodasha Chakravartins. A Chakravartin is an ideal universal ruler who wields the Chakra (disc) of Lord Vishnu, symbolizing absolute power and dharma. These rulers are said to have governed vast territories with justice and righteousness. This article explores each of the sixteen Chakravartins and their lives as depicted in various Hindu texts.

==== Bharata ====
Bharata, son of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, is one of the most renowned Chakravartins. The Indian subcontinent is named "Bharata" after him. Key aspects of Bharata's life:

- His birth was surrounded by controversy due to his parents' secret marriage.

- He performed a hundred Ashvamedha Yajnas (horse sacrifices).

- Known for his just rule and expansive conquests across the Indian subcontinent.

- The Mahabharata provides extensive details about his lineage and reign.

==== Mandhatra ====
Also known as Mandhata, he was a king of the Ikshvaku dynasty. Notable points:

- Son of King Yuvanashva, born in an unusual manner from his father's stomach.

- Conquered the entire earth in a single day.

- Known for his righteousness and adherence to dharma.

- The Vishnu Purana mentions his conquest of the seven dwipas (continents).

==== Sagara ====
Sagara was an Ikshvaku king, famous for his sixty thousand sons. Key events:

- His sons dug the ocean while searching for a sacrificial horse, creating the ocean bed (sagar in Hindi means ocean).

- He performed an Ashvamedha Yajna which was disrupted by Indra.

- Known for his just rule and military prowess.

==== Bhagiratha ====
Bhagiratha, a descendant of Sagara, is famous for bringing the Ganges river to Earth. Significant achievements:

- Performed severe penance to please Brahma and Shiva to bring Ganga to Earth.

- His efforts led to the salvation of his ancestors (Sagara's sons).

- The term "Bhagiratha prayatna" (Herculean effort) is named after him.

==== Sivi ====
Sivi was known for his extreme generosity and willingness to sacrifice for others. Famous incidents:

- Offered his own flesh to save a dove from a hawk, demonstrating his commitment to protecting those who sought refuge.

- His story is often cited as an example of dharma and self-sacrifice.

==== Dilipa ====
Dilipa was a king of the Solar dynasty, known for his devotion and righteousness. Key aspects:

- Father of Raghu and grandfather of Dasharatha (Rama's father).

- Known for his unwavering devotion to dharma and protection of cows.

- His story of serving Nandini, the divine cow, is famous in Hindu literature.

==== Rama ====
Rama, the protagonist of the Ramayana, is considered the ideal king and man. Significant points:

- Seventh avatar of Vishnu.

- His rule, known as "Rama Rajya," is considered the epitome of good governance.

- Known for his adherence to dharma, even at great personal cost.

==== Prithu ====
Prithu is considered the first consecrated king and the original Chakravartin. Notable aspects:

- Born from the right hand of King Vena's corpse.

- Seen as an avatar of Vishnu.

- Credited with introducing agriculture and cattle-rearing to humanity.

==== Kartavirya Arjuna ====
Also known as Sahasrabahu (thousand-armed), he was a powerful king of the Haihayas. Key events:

- Possessed a thousand arms and great magical powers.

- Defeated and imprisoned Ravana.

- Eventually killed by Parashurama for his arrogance and misuse of power.

==== Muchukunda ====
Muchukunda was a king of the Solar Dynasty, known for his valor and devotion. Significant incidents:

- Assisted the Devas in their war against the Asuras.

- Granted a boon by Indra to sleep undisturbed and incinerate anyone who woke him.

- Later awakened by Krishna, leading to the destruction of the demon Kalayavana.

==== Ambarisha ====
Ambarisha was a great devotee of Vishnu, known for his unwavering bhakti (devotion). Famous for:

- His steadfast devotion even in the face of a curse from the sage Durvasa.

- Protected by the Sudarshana Chakra of Vishnu.

- Often cited as an example of ideal devotion in Bhakti literature.

==== Yayati ====
Yayati was a Chandravamsha (Lunar dynasty) king known for his desire for eternal youth. Key aspects:

- Cursed by his father-in-law Shukracharya with premature old age.

- Exchanged his old age with his son Puru's youth.

- His story is often interpreted as a cautionary tale about the futility of sensual pleasures.

==== Puru ====
Puru was the youngest son of Yayati, known for his filial devotion. Notable points:

- Willingly accepted his father's old age in exchange for his youth.

- Founded the Puru dynasty, which later produced the Kauravas and Pandavas.

- Considered an embodiment of duty towards parents.

==== Bharata (son of Dushyanta) ====
Not to be confused with the first Bharata, this Bharata was the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala. Significant aspects:

- His story is famously depicted in Kalidasa's play "Abhijnanasakuntalam."

- Known for his just rule and expansion of his kingdom.

- The Bharata clan, central to the Mahabharata, is named after him.

==== Yudhishthira ====
The eldest of the Pandava brothers and the central character of the Mahabharata. Key points:

- Known as Dharmaraja for his adherence to dharma.

- Performed the Rajasuya Yajna, establishing his status as a Chakravartin.

- His reign after the Kurukshetra war is described as a golden age.

==== Harishchandra ====
Harishchandra is famous for his adherence to truth and righteousness even in the face of extreme adversity. Notable aspects:

- Gave up his kingdom, wife, and son to fulfill a promise to sage Vishwamitra.

- Worked as a guard in a cremation ground to uphold his principles.

- His story is often cited as the ultimate example of truthfulness and integrity.

The sixteen Chakravartins represent ideal kingship in Hindu tradition, embodying virtues such as justice, devotion, sacrifice, and adherence to dharma. Their stories, found in various Puranic texts and epics like the Mahabharata, have played a significant role in shaping Hindu ethical and political thought. While the historical authenticity of these figures is debated, their legendary status and the moral lessons derived from their lives continue to influence Indian culture and philosophy. These Chakravartins are not just seen as political rulers but as spiritual exemplars whose reigns brought prosperity and righteousness to the earth. Their tales often intertwine with those of gods, sages, and cosmic events, placing them at the intersection of history, mythology, and spiritual allegory in Hindu tradition.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

Ancient Chakravartins

2024-07-19T20:13:42Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " In the Puranas and the Mahabharata, there are sixteen legendary emperors known as Chakravartins or Shodasha Chakravartins. A Chakravartin is an ideal universal ruler who wields the Chakra (disc) of Lord Vishnu, symbolizing absolute power and dharma. These rulers are said to have governed vast territories with justice and righteousness. This article explores each of the sixteen Chakravartins and their lives as depicted in various Hindu texts. ==== Bharata ==== Bharata,..."

A Primer to the Vedic Corpus

2024-07-19T20:11:01Z

Akshayjha:

The Vedic corpus is the foundation of ancient Indian spiritual, philosophical, and cultural traditions. These texts, written in Sanskrit, form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and are considered sacred by Hindus. Vedic literature is traditionally divided into four main categories: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Each category serves a specific purpose and together they encapsulate the spiritual and intellectual ethos of Vedic civilization.

==== Samhitas ====
The Samhitas are collections of hymns, prayers, mantras, and incantations. Each of the four Vedas has its own Samhita.

* Rigveda Samhita: The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest and consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas) divided into ten books (mandalas). These hymns are invocations of various deities such as Agni, Indra, Varuna, and others. The hymns cover a wide range of themes, including cosmology, rituals, and philosophical questions. The hymns are primarily in the form of praises and are intended for recitation during rituals.
* Samaveda Samhita: The Samaveda Samhita comprises 1,549 stanzas, most of which are borrowed from the Rigveda. However, these stanzas are set to musical notation and are meant to be sung during the Soma sacrifices. It is primarily a liturgical text, focusing on the melodies and chants used in sacrifices. The Samaveda is divided into two main parts: the Purvarchika and the Uttararchika, each containing hymns used in different sacrificial contexts.
* Yajurveda Samhita: The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras used in rituals. It is divided into two main versions: the Shukla (White) Yajurveda and the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda. The Shukla Yajurveda contains only the mantras, while the Krishna Yajurveda includes both mantras and explanatory prose. The Yajurveda is primarily a ritualistic text, providing the formulas and instructions for performing various yajnas (sacrifices).
* Atharvaveda Samhita: The Atharvaveda Samhita consists of around 760 hymns and covers a wide range of topics, including rituals, magic spells, healing practices, and philosophical discussions. It reflects the everyday life and beliefs of the people, including prayers for health, wealth, and protection against evil. Unlike the other Vedas, the Atharvaveda has a more diverse content and is considered a repository of knowledge related to various aspects of life.

==== Brahmanas ====
The Brahmanas are prose texts that provide explanations and instructions for the rituals described in the Samhitas. Each Veda has its own set of Brahmanas.

Rigveda Brahmanas:

* Aitareya Brahmana: Provides detailed instructions for various rituals and sacrifices. It also contains myths and legends that explain the significance of these rituals.
* Kaushitaki Brahmana: Similar in content to the Aitareya Brahmana, it offers explanations of rituals and sacrificial ceremonies.

Samaveda Brahmanas:

* Tandya Mahabrahmana: Also known as the Panchavimsha Brahmana, it explains the rituals of the Samaveda in great detail.
* Jaiminiya Brahmana: Another important Brahmana of the Samaveda, it provides additional ritualistic details and myths.

Yajurveda Brahmanas:

* Shatapatha Brahmana: One of the most extensive Brahmanas, associated with the Shukla Yajurveda. It provides detailed explanations of rituals and includes philosophical discussions.
* Taittiriya Brahmana: Associated with the Krishna Yajurveda, it offers explanations and instructions for performing sacrifices.

Atharvaveda Brahmana:

* Gopatha Brahmana: The only Brahmana associated with the Atharvaveda, it explains the rituals and ceremonies specific to this Veda.

==== Aranyakas ====
The Aranyakas are texts that serve as a bridge between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads. They are intended for study in the forest (Aranya), away from the distractions of urban life.

Rigveda Aranyakas:

* Aitareya Aranyaka: Deals with the philosophical aspects of rituals and includes the Aitareya Upanishad.
* Kaushitaki Aranyaka: Contains discussions on various rituals and includes the Kaushitaki Upanishad.

Samaveda Aranyakas:

* Tandya Mahabrahmana Aranyaka: Provides philosophical insights into the rituals of the Samaveda.

Yajurveda Aranyakas:

* Taittiriya Aranyaka: Associated with the Krishna Yajurveda, it includes the Taittiriya Upanishad and discusses the mystical aspects of rituals.
* Brihadaranyaka: Associated with the Shukla Yajurveda, it is one of the most important Aranyakas, containing profound philosophical teachings and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

Atharvaveda Aranyakas:

* The Atharvaveda does not have a distinct Aranyaka, but its content often overlaps with the themes discussed in the Aranyakas of other Vedas.

==== Upanishads ====
The Upanishads are philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth (Brahman).

Rigveda Upanishads:

* Aitareya Upanishad: Discusses the nature of the soul (Atman) and its relationship with the cosmic spirit (Brahman).

Samaveda Upanishads:

* Chandogya Upanishad: One of the major Upanishads, it covers various philosophical themes, including the nature of the self and the universe.
* Kena Upanishad: Explores the nature of knowledge and the supreme reality.

Yajurveda Upanishads:

* Isha Upanishad: Emphasizes the concept of living in the world with a sense of detachment and understanding of the divine.
* Taittiriya Upanishad: Discusses the layers of human existence, from the physical to the spiritual.
* Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: One of the longest and most profound Upanishads, it covers extensive philosophical discussions on the nature of reality and the self.

Atharvaveda Upanishads:

* Mundaka Upanishad: Explores the difference between higher knowledge (knowledge of Brahman) and lower knowledge (worldly knowledge).
* Mandukya Upanishad: Focuses on the syllable Om and its significance in understanding the self and the universe.
* Prashna Upanishad: Consists of six questions posed by students to a sage, covering various aspects of the nature of reality and the self.

Authored by Amritanshu Pandey.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Philosophy]]

A Primer to the Vedic Corpus

2024-07-19T20:10:49Z

Akshayjha: Created page with " The Vedic corpus is the foundation of ancient Indian spiritual, philosophical, and cultural traditions. These texts, written in Sanskrit, form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and are considered sacred by Hindus. Vedic literature is traditionally divided into four main categories: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Each category serves a specific purpose and together they encapsulate the spiritual and intellectual ethos of Vedic civilization. ====..."

The Ātman in Hinduism: Part 4

2024-07-19T20:06:59Z

Akshayjha:

==== Religion & Philosophy: The Hindu Trinity ====
We have derived the following three underlying unities:

* Ātman <= the underlying impersonal persisting self in the microcosm
* Brahman <= the underlying impersonal persisting divine in the theocosm
* Sat <= the underlying uncategorical persisting being in the macrocosm

But if at the deepest level, we cannot distinguish between categories of various individuals, gods and materials, what makes us think that we can distinguish between even these three categories?! The Upanisads declare that all these three are the same and the equation “ātman = brahman = sat” is as revolutionary to Indian philosophy as much as the equation “E=mc^2” in modern physics. I call this the Hindu trinity. Equating these three means that “I (the ātman) am God (understood as brahman), God is the Cosmos (understood as sat), I am the cosmos”. The former two would be blasphemous in an Abrahamic theology while the third would contradict the privilege of humanity from the rest of creation. But in philosophical Hinduism, these would be almost obvious.

The ātman exists and it can never be known in the normal sense of the word. Can we move on now? No! In Hindu metaphysics, we are really ātman and after death, we will be reincarnated in a new body. In fact this is why religious conflicts have rarely become lethal and violent in India. Because, even if you are wrong in this birth, you can fix it next time! You will keep on getting chances to fix if you make mistakes. At the outset, this might give us hope - we are born again after death and hence we do not really die. But for Indians, this was actually a bad case since when you are born again, you also die again and rebirth also means redeath. The Indian ideal was not eternal joy in this cycle of birth and death but ironically, to escape this endless cycle of reincarnation, called in Sanskrit as संसार saṃsāra. The ultimate aim was to get liberated from this cycle and technically this was termed as मोक्ष mokṣa which literally means liberation in Sanskrit. What leads to this liberation and what happens after liberation?

The method for liberation in Hindu dharma lay in knowledge - realization that we are actually ātman = brahman = sat. But this knowledge is not mere belief after being convinced by either logical reasoning (for e.g, after reading this article) or by faith. If Hinduism were an Abrahamic religion, one could get liberation by just uttering and sincerely believing in a catechism or shahada [profession of faith] like “I am ātman which is the same as the brahman and sat”.

But in Hinduism, this is just a mere beginning in the road to liberation. What is needed is not a matter of sincere outward epistemic realization but a deep down realization that persists and transforms the way we live life. For example, imagine a sincerely believing Christian who thinks that he will be saved by his faith in Jesus and believes that he is guaranteed a ticket to heaven after his death wherein he will be in eternal joy thereafter. He also knows that the joys of heaven are much more gratifying than the ones on earth. But let’s say his doctor one day, suddenly gives him news that he is suffering from a deadly disease and soon is going to die. Will he be happy? Imagine that he is actually happy. That is the beginning to demonstrate the kind of belief that you need to possess to actually achieve liberation in Hinduism. One has to immerse oneself in the realization that atman is same as brahman and sat such that one loses their individuality completely - this state is called enlightenment. In this state, outwardly an individual looks enlightened to others but to himself, this statement becomes meaningless as his individuality is lost in that experience. That experience in which one realizes that one is atman is not like a realization of the correctness of a mathematical theorem (where there is a knower trapping a knowable entity) but is more like an experience when one is in dreamless deep sleep - there is no duality at all but still there is a consciousness that simply is and illuminates itself without creating any sense of duality. The process or technique which leads to this experience is called योग yoga which literally means unity or joining in Sanskrit.

==== The Status of the Phenomenal World ====
There are two questions that arise now. We have said that beyond the world of flux that includes multiplicities of persons, gods and objects, there lies another persistent unitary world of ātman = brahman = sat (hereafter I will use brahman to engulf the other two as well as anyways they are all equal). One must then ask -

What is the relationship between the phenomenal world of multiplicities and the underlying world of brahman?

In what exact sense, every individual self / object is ultimately equal to every other individual self/object and to the brahman?

Several metaphors are given by the Upanisads to understand these relationships and equalities. In the later era of classical darśanas, Hinduism would split into several schools based on the answers to these and other questions. These schools would justify their proposed answers to the questions by interpreting the Upanisadic metaphors that are given regarding this.

But whatever the answer to these questions one may subscribe to, it is undeniable that there is a superficial everyday reality of diversity and an ultimate deeper reality of unity (talk about unity in diversity!) - whatever the relationship between the two may be. How can both be true simultaneously?

The famous British astronomer Arthur Eddington gives this example: From the perspective of common sense experience, a table is solid and dense and as solid as one can get. Yet from the perspective of atomic physics, a table is mostly empty (remember that all atoms that constitute the table are mostly empty space with a tiny yet heavy nucleus). Both of these are simultaneously true - it would be unwise to deny atomic physics as just a mental structure that just encashes ordinary experience because it provides a stable framework and appeals to all sorts of evidence. It would also be unwise to deny ordinary experience as an incorrect, inferior, pre-science and folk reasoning. But just because atomic physics says it, doesn't mean that it invalidates our common sensical experience of a table being solid and dense. Both are related and true simultaneously. The common sense experience served as the ingredient to scientific theories like that of atomic physics. And atomic physics can explain why we perceive the table to be solid and dense despite it being mostly empty. There is no contradiction as both these statements are made in different नयs (perspectives) and if one understands these. In other words, the philosophical point being made is that it is impossible to sharply separate what is meant by calling a statement "true" from acceptable criteria for judging that it is true.

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Ātman in Hinduism: Part 4

2024-07-19T20:06:54Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Religion & Philosophy: The Hindu Trinity ==== We have derived the following three underlying unities: * Ātman <= the underlying impersonal persisting self in the microcosm * Brahman <= the underlying impersonal persisting divine in the theocosm * Sat <= the underlying uncategorical persisting being in the macrocosm But if at the deepest level, we cannot distinguish between categories of various individuals, gods and materials, what makes us think that we can dist..."

The Ātman in Hinduism: Part 3

2024-07-19T20:05:44Z

Akshayjha:

==== Brahman and Divine-Identity: The Theocosm ====
Like most other ancient civilizations of the world (Greece, Rome, Egypt etc..), ancient Indian civilization too was a polytheistic religion where prayers and sacrificial rituals to many divine gods and goddesses formed an integral part of ritual and cultural life. Different cultures of the world did eventually make a transition from polytheism to monotheism eventually. But they did it differently.

One simple way to make the transition to monotheism is to radically deny that all the gods who have been worshiped by your ancestors for millenia [except one] simply do not exist - and now start worshiping just that one god as the true god who alone exists. This transition was made by the Hebrews initiated during the times of King Josiah (c. 640-690 BCE) and was solidified and reinforced during the times of prophets when the Jews were conquered and exiled by the Babylonian Empire. The Jews in exile started believing that exclusive worship of their national God (Yahweh) will placate him and then make him redeem them from the Babylonian exile. Eventually, the prophets convinced them to not just worship one god (their national god) but also to deny the existence of other gods.

Another way to make the transition is to elevate one god as “the god” and place the other previous gods subordinate to the one supreme god - this too was did by many cults in the ancient world but was systemically did in Zoroastrianism - the founder of this religion named Zarathushtra reformed the traditional Iranian religion by making it into a monotheism by placing one god as supreme - Ahura Mazda - but the other traditional Iranian gods were not denied of their existence. They still existed but they are either evil (hence not worshipable) or if good, were declared to be subordinate to Ahura Mazda and they are not worthy enough to be worshiped.

The Greco-Roman world, the rest of Europe and Africa, and the Middle Eastern world made a discontinuous and violent transition to monotheism by forced conversion to a new monotheistic religion - Christianity (that started out as a Jewish sect) or Islam (that arose from a heretic form of Christianity prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia). This is not actually an evolution to monotheism but a rampant revolution.

But in India, the transition to monotheism happened in the most elegant and continuous manner possible. The transition happened through getting convinced by investigation. If you remember from the previous section, the persistent self is devoid of any personal attributes that characterize us as a distinct individual in our everyday world - our thoughts, our desires, our bodies and so on. But even the gods of Hinduism are anthropomorphic - they have desires, bodies and thoughts and behavioral patterns too. Applying this same logic by asking what persists to gods and goddesses, we conclude that there is an underlying sense of identity behind all gods. But by the same reasoning, this persistent self-identity behind each god is divorced from their individual attributes - and hence fundamentally, all gods and goddesses originate in a single underlying persistent eternal reality - the Upanisads call it as ब्रह्मन् (brahman). The word ब्रह्मन् in Sanskrit comes from the verb root “बृह्” that means “to grow, to swell, to expand, to enlarge”. Using the term brahman for this underlying impersonal divinity refers to the process of origination as he is the source from which all other gods and goddesses expand from.

So, all gods and goddesses become a single underlying brahman if viewed and understood only in terms of their bare essence of their own selves. This is not just tolerant but deeply accommodating to all kinds of popular religions - the multiplicity of gods and goddesses are neither denied nor subordinated to one supreme god and their worship continues exactly the same as before. Just that it is understood at a higher level that all these multiplicities of gods and goddesses when understood more perfectly, are actually one.

This is why Hinduism resists classification into monotheism or polytheism. There is an underlying monotheism behind a phenomenal polytheism. Yes, Hindus do worship many distinct gods and yes, Hindus also recognize that there is a base of one-ness in the divine realm.

==== Sat and World-Identity: The Macrocosm ====
All civilizations have attempted to understand the outside natural world that we perceive. Everyone must have asked at some point even in their childhood and be amazed by the magnificent changes that take place in our world around us. Change of seasons, change of weather, climate, flow of rivers, movement of celestial bodies and so on. Suddenly there is an earthquake or a tornado that wreaks havoc on millions and then disappears into oblivion. This phenomenal world of change that we observe, is referred to in Sanskrit as जगत् (jagat) which derives from a verb root “गम्” that means “to go, to move”.

For Sanskrit grammar nerds only: The word जगत् is a reduplicated weakened form of the root गम्. Reduplication happens in Sanskrit for example in the perfect tense (e.g. जगाम = he went). The disappearance of the final म् is also common in weak forms of the verb (e.g. गत = gone).

But is there any underlying constant beyond all of these natural phenomena? This has led to the development of natural science starting from the atomic theory to modern particle physics and general relativity. Atomic theory aims to explain the entire phenomenal world by saying that atoms are constant and all phenomenal change that we observe in the universe is simply due to the movement and rearrangement of these atoms due to their interaction by known physical laws. We are not yet towards a theory of everything in physics but we have come fairly close. We have broken down everything as much as we can to identify the fundamental particles that constitute everything and have come fairly close to describing all of their interactions through the four fundamental forces. What remains is just to unify one such force of gravitation to the three remaining fundamental forces in a single framework.

Would our Ṛṣis who wrote the Upanishads have been impressed by this? Were these particles and forces what they had been looking for? Not at all - this was not their ultimate aim. The Ṛṣis were looking for not just mere fundamental particles [which can’t be broken down further] and their interactions. This is still the phenomenal world of जगत् - it is still changing. The atoms move about and interact - just that we have now tamed down our understanding of these changes and restricted them and reduced them to a few fundamental particles and laws.

What is it about these particles that make them persist? This picture of objects or particles are just filters applied on our perceived reality to explain it. If we just are struck in our senses by the flux of this phenomenal जगत् (jagat), we feel just a bunch of momentary sights, sounds, smells, tastes and touches. The particles and forces are simply more sophisticated versions of categorizations and classifications to predict and exploit this world of phenomena. What makes any of these categorizations [these particles and forces themselves] persist? And when we looked for the underlying persistent factor behind the selves and gods and found them all to be a unity, should not there be a unity too into whatever underlies this phenomenal world? This underlying unity in the phenomenal flow of जगत् (jagat) is called in Sanskrit in the text of Upanisads by the term सत् (sat). The word सत् in Sanskrit literally means “being” and is grammatically the present active participle (शतृ न.पुं form in Sanskrit grammar) of the verb root “अस्” that means “to be”. So, we see that the only thing that can be a common attribute of all that is really and persistently there in the world is sheer being and existence - divorced from the changing flux of our thoughts and material bodies.

As the ātman and brahman are bereft of particular human and divine personalities, the sat is devoid of particular categorizations of phenomena. All three of them just share one attribute - being alive, being divine and being respectively.

Thus, सत् is just sheer being and existence that underlies all the flowing reality of the changing world of jagat.

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Ātman in Hinduism: Part 3

2024-07-19T20:05:40Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Brahman and Divine-Identity: The Theocosm ==== Like most other ancient civilizations of the world (Greece, Rome, Egypt etc..), ancient Indian civilization too was a polytheistic religion where prayers and sacrificial rituals to many divine gods and goddesses formed an integral part of ritual and cultural life. Different cultures of the world did eventually make a transition from polytheism to monotheism eventually. But they did it differently. One simple way to ma..."

The Atman in Hinduism - Part 2

2024-07-19T20:03:10Z

Akshayjha:

==== Ātman and Self-Identity: The Microcosm ====
But instead of that, let us take your identity as a person. If your name is X, then you believe that you are the same person X now as you were, when you were a child right? Imagine the staggering amount of changes that have taken place from your childhood. None of the cells in your body are the same as the cells that were there in your childhood (like the parts of the ship hundred years later were completely different). Also your mental world has changed completely - your thoughts, your tastes, your intentions, your views and so on have changed as well. But still we think of ourselves as the same person that we were. Is this also merely conventional like the identity of the ship of Theseus?

Most of us think that we have a constant self identity that runs throughout our life that is not merely conventional but something that is more firmly rooted. When we faint and regain consciousness to wake up in a radically different environment, we doubt everything but we always feel our own selves to be familiar. Even if we suffer from amnesia, after regaining consciousness, we may forget our own names and what we did, but there will still be a sense of “me” and the “outer world” running through although that is now more ethereal. What is it that remains constant throughout my life that makes me feel me at all moments despite drastic continuous changes? We think that our sense of self identity of ourselves a “me” is not just merely conventional but is actual - in fact it is more actual than any other identity - I can doubt about the identity of anything else (ships or rivers and so on), but I cannot doubt that I exist as a persistent self - Descartes said “I am” is the most fundamental and certain of all beliefs. To put in the words of the 18th century philosopher Bishop Butler, the identity of our self is “strict and philosophical” rather than “lose or popular” from convention.

But some Western philosophers did consider the idea of our own persistent self existence as merely conventional and hence fundamentally wrong and indefensible. How can I know that there is a me that persists as a stable element throughout my experienced life? Obviously, when you introspect your own thoughts, you do not find anything constantly running in them that binds them together (although there is a causal continuity). The radical empiricist philosopher David Hume asks this same question and thus concludes through introspection that there is nothing called a self - just a bundle of thoughts. The Buddha did the same thing 2500 years before Hume and we will see that in the section on Buddhism. Does this mean that the idea of the self is misplaced? Not necessarily. Critics of Hume have sometimes asked, "If Hume looked for his own self and failed to find it, who/what was doing the looking?". This is what Descartes also did to justify the existence of the self - if I doubt that I exist, there must be someone doing this doubting and that is the self. So, the persistent self is not to be looked for among the thoughts of our experience but to be inferred as the subject that does the thinking and not among the contents of what is thought. Every moment of thinking is a dual experience - it involves a subject and an object of thought. Perhaps, the idea of a self is not to be found in the objects of thought but in the subject. But even if we subscribe to the idea of the self as an inferred subject who does the thinking, how would you explain the persistence of the self when one is in a dreamless deep sleep - one does not think anything during deep sleep and hence does that mean that the self identity ceases to persist? The Indian philosophers would not take that as an answer - but what other non dual forms of experience beyond thinking are needed to directly trap the self at all times - even when one is not thinking as in a state of dreamless sleep?

The Upanisads offer a radically different answer to this question by indeed appealing to such a form of experience but this form of experience is not available to everyone and requires extensive preparation and hard work. The Upanisads are the earliest body of philosophical works in India, that confront the problem of the self and self identity head on. The authors of the Upanisads firmly believe that the self is unchanging. But all our bodies, thoughts and personality and even the very fact that whether we are thinking (of something) - all these change - this is also a matter of fact that also can’t be denied. But they do not adopt a Western Cartesian solution to infer the self from the thinking mind because even thinking is not a constant in our lives [e.g. in deep sleep]. So, they conclude radically that our bodies and thoughts and personality and even the subject of thinking - are not a part of our self and hence play no role in constituting our self - who we really are. In short, this is the argument:

Each of us has a persistent sense of “me”.

This “me” (as is intuitively felt) must be unchanging.

But personality, thoughts, behavior and bodies and even whether we think or not, change.

Hence, the persistent “me” cannot include these elements.

This is different from the Western conceptions that seek to look for the self among the objects or subjects of thought. So, who we really are and that which gives us our persistent personal identity is divorced from thinking, our bodies and behaviors. It is very bare and simply exists without including any of our activities that we are engaged in. The Indian philosophers call such a self by the name - आत्मन् (ātman). The word आत्मन् is a Sanskrit noun derived from the verb root “अत्” that conveys the idea of being continuously persistent and conveys a connotation of eternality. For example, the word for Hinduism in Sanskrit is सनातनधर्म (sanātana-dharma - meaning: eternal dharma) that etymologically splits as सं (intensifying prefix) + आत् (modification of root अत्) +अन (noun suffix) which demonstrates that the word for eternal contains a form of the verb root अत् which indicates persistence through time.

What does such a postulation logically imply? The seers who composed the Upanisads didn’t shy away in taking this to its fullest logical conclusions. It must be shocking to conclude that what we think so dearly of ourselves and our individuality - our personality, thoughts, desires and bodies - are not who we are because they are not “me” that runs constant. Who we really are - our ātman lacks all elements of our individuality. But if it lacks all individuality, then what is there to distinguish your ātman from ātman?! Or even broader, what is there to distinguish your ātman from that of a dog or a bacteria or a plant?! So,at a deepest level of what persists and really constitutes who we are, we are the same as a dog or a tree or a bacteria. This is the radical conclusion reached in the Upanisads. That what persists and hence constitutes really “us”, is the same as that which constitutes every other human being and even every living being. Deep down, we all are constituted by the same underlying persistent single “ātman”. But, this does not stop here. We have converged on a single persistent reality that underlies all existence of all living beings. Why stop at just living beings? What about gods? What about the material cosmos?

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Atman in Hinduism - Part 2

2024-07-19T20:03:05Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Ātman and Self-Identity: The Microcosm ==== But instead of that, let us take your identity as a person. If your name is X, then you believe that you are the same person X now as you were, when you were a child right? Imagine the staggering amount of changes that have taken place from your childhood. None of the cells in your body are the same as the cells that were there in your childhood (like the parts of the ship hundred years later were completely different). A..."

The Atman in Hinduism - Part 1

2024-07-19T20:01:38Z

Akshayjha:

==== Identities: Conventional vs Actual ====
The famous ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus said “You do not step into the same river twice”. What he meant of course is that since the water is at constant flux in the river, the set of water that is in the river at some time is not the same as the set of water that is in the river after that time. Why then would we call such different waters at different times by the same river - what makes the river Ganga at one moment, the same river Ganga at another moment even though the waters that constitute it have completely changed between those moments? There is another related thought called “The ship of Theseus”. Theseus was a mythical king of Athens in Greek culture who saved Athenians from the evil King Minos. To commemorate the escape of Theseus to Athens after saving the Athenians from Minos, every year, it is said that ancient Athenians would mark this by taking his ship on a pilgrimage to Delos. Now, every year, the ship undergoes some maintenance so that some of its damaged parts are replaced. After a hundred years, no part of the ship is the same as that of the parts that were there originally but the Athenians still begin to call it as the ship of Theseus. Are they right or mistaken? This philosophical problem is called the paradox of Theseus and was discussed right from the time of ancient philosophers. There are two answers to this - let me call one side the conventionalist side and the other side as an actualist side.

The conventionalists argue that the ship hundred years later is not the same as the ship of Theseus initially in any way due to the complete change and hence technically, we are not right to think of both as the same ship. This side espouses that the identity that is indeed carried forward by the masses is a mere linguistic convention that thinks of the original ship during the times of Theseus to be the same as the ship hundred years later only due to the continuous and causally related links that connect the initial ship to the final ship. So, according to this conventionalist view, persistence of identity over time even with change is simply a mistaken folk belief. The actualists however argue back, saying that the ship of Theseus is not just the material of the ship but an abstract idea that has a reality of its own immaterially, that is only materially manifested by the actual material of the ship and that the form persists despite the material changes that gradually ensued over the years due to the causal continuity between the ship at one moment to the ship at another moment. But the conventionalist can argue back saying that this abstract idea is what we call as “mere linguistic convention” and is hence only conventionally real as it is thought of only in the mind and does not correspond to reality faithfully.

Whatever side one is on this debate, there is an underlying question that both sides need to answer - whether the identity of the ship of Theseus is only conventional or actual.

What are the criteria to be satisfied so that the ship continues to actually be or conventionally be referred to as the ship of Theseus over time?

Surely not all kinds of changes preserve the identity (whether conventional or actual) of the ship of Theseus. If the ship is destroyed by a fire and then someone recreates the ship perfectly to how it originally was in the minutest detail, we would still not think of the newly rebuilt ship as the ship of Theseus - we would only call it a replica. So, one important criteria required is continuity in change. The ship at any point in time should undergo only minor modifications to have only some of its parts replaced so that it continuously is related to how it was at its previous moment albeit with some modifications - however when it is destroyed by fire, the new ship that is built thereafter, is not causally linked to the ashes of the old ship which are materially of different chemical nature from the material of the old ship. So, causal continuity in the material realm seems to be a necessary condition for the persistence of identity (whether conventional or actual) to the ship. But is this alone enough?

The philosopher Thomas Hobbes in the 17th century proposed a thought experiment to counter this notion - supposing that a ship custodian slowly gathers up all of the decayed parts of the ship (that were disposed of and replaced by the Athenians) and assembles it , to build a second ship. So that eventually we have two ships after a hundred years - one with all the material parts of the original ship that was built from scratch using all the parts of the old ship and another that was slowly renovated from the original - which of the two ships now can lay a claim on the identity of being the ship of Theseus? Both are causally related to the original ship of Theseus. Quoting his own words below1: <blockquote>“For if that Ship of Theseus (concerning the Difference whereof, made by continual reparation, in taking out the old Planks, and putting in new, the sophisters of Athens were wont to dispute) were, after all the Planks were changed, the same Numerical Ship it was at the beginning; and if some Man had kept the Old Planks as they were taken out, and by putting them afterward together in the same order, had again made a Ship of them, this, without doubt, had also been the same Numerical Ship with that which was at the beginnings and so there would have been two Ships Numerically the same, which is absurd... But we must consider by what name anything is called when we inquire concerning the Identity of it... so that a Ship, which signifies Matter so figured, will be the same, as long as the Matter remains the same; but if no part of the Matter is the same, then it is Numerically another Ship; and if part of the Matter remains, and part is changed, then the Ship will be partly the same, and partly not the same”. </blockquote>Hobbes has proposed above two types of identities to solve this problem - identity of form and identity of material. Materially, the original ship of Theseus loses the identity of being as the ship of Theseus after all of its parts are getting replaced. After it loses one part, it is now 99% materially, the ship of Theseus. But that single part when gotten hold by the custodian, becomes 1% identical materially to the ship of Theseus. Materially, the ship that was built by the custodian with parts left over by Athenians, after completion, is materially identical to the ship of Theseus. So, identity by material is not a binary notion but comes in degrees. But only the ship renovated by Athenians is in form, identical to the ship of Theseus at all times as it is continuously related as a ship at all times to the original ship of Theseus (remember that the building of the ship by the custodian is an incremental process - first he starts with some parts and then gradually assembles together). It takes a while till the Athenians have thrown away all the parts of the original ship for the custodian to build his ship and hence during the initial stages, the custodian has only a collection of random disposed off parts from the original ship that does not have the structure of a ship. So, in form, it can never be related continuously to the original ship of Theseus. Identity by form is binary. We can then argue whether identity by form is just conventional or actual - Hobbes has thus just re-phrased the question.

But whichever side of the debate you are on - whether the identity of the ship is conventional or actual or a confusion between two different kinds of underlying identities, the problem of the identity of the ship does not affect you personally. If you take the conventionalist position that the identity of a ship that we commonly think about is actually an illusion or technically incorrect, you would not be shattered as much. But is this the same for all kinds of identities?

==== References ====
<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/b30335838/page/n123/mode/2up</nowiki>

Authored by Rama Seshan Chandra Sekaran.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Social Sciences]]

The Atman in Hinduism - Part 1

2024-07-19T20:01:11Z

Akshayjha: Created page with "==== Identities: Conventional vs Actual ==== The famous ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus said “You do not step into the same river twice”. What he meant of course is that since the water is at constant flux in the river, the set of water that is in the river at some time is not the same as the set of water that is in the river after that time. Why then would we call such different waters at different times by the same river - what makes the river Ganga at one mom..."

Makar Sankranti - The Worship of Bhagavan Surya

2024-07-19T20:00:03Z

Akshayjha:

Often, owing to a loss of cultural meaning-making mechanisms, we are unable to understand the deeper significance of our festivals. We celebrate them superficially and fail to understand the traditions in their entirety. What makes most of the utsavas of Bharat beautiful is that they have different manifestations in various parts of the country. Some of them are also celebrated in far-away lands, signifying the spread of Hindu culture. Makar Sankrant possesses immense importance, but the larger meaning and depth is lost on most people. In this piece, we attempt to explore unknown facets and symbolisms associated with the festival of Makar Sankranti.

The Hindu civilization of Bharatavarsha, has recognized the divinity inherent in the forces of nature and worshipped them since time immemorial. This creation is a magnificent manifestation, a reflection of the effulgent Consciousness, that is Brahman. It is the stillness that empowers the rhythmic movements of nature's cycles and it is the seed of silence that empowers man's transformation from human to divine.

Bharat's innumerable festivals are a colourful celebration of this central principle of cosmic consciousness. Life on earth is intimately connected with cosmic cycles. This knowledge is not only found encoded cryptically in our scriptures, but it is the very foundation of our festivals.

Bharatiya itself means "he who revels in light." While this light manifests in the cave of our hearts as pure awareness, it can be seen and experienced in the presence of Surya Bhagavan, the thousand-rayed son of Aditi. He is worshipped as Pratyaksha Brahman for He is the source of nourishment for every being on this planet.

The "harvest festivals" of India are exuberant celebrations that go by different names across the country such as Makar Sankranti in the North and West, Pongal in the South, Magh Bihu in the North East and so on. While each of them have diverse traditions, a common ritual is the worship of Surya Bhagavan. Fresh and scrumptious food cooked from the abundant harvest of the year is offered to Him and Mother Earth as a mark of gratitude.

Sankrantis signify the movement of the sun from one zodiac sign to another. Out of these, Makar Sankranti is specifically celebrated because the earth heralds the bright spring season. The sun transitions into the Makara rashi which in its depiction is a mythical aquatic creature often understood in the modern world as a crocodile.

Interestingly in Hindu lore, the makara is the guardian of thresholds and gateways. It finds prominence in the entrances of ancient Hindu temples and also finds an important place in Buddhist architecture. It symbolises the chaos we need to grow through for the emergence of something new, for the rise of abundance within and around us.

This can also be connected to another aspect of the sun’s transit. In the previous six months, Surya Bhagavan was on a southward journey, traditionally known as Dakshinayana or Sadhana Pada. This is the time where we put in tremendous effort on the spiritual path.

From the day of Makar Sankranti, He begins his journey towards the north. This has been known as Uttarayana or Kaivalya Pada where the seeds of spiritual abundance begin to sprout. Aren’t we aware of the famous story in the Mahabharata where Bhishma Pitamaha waits until the beginning of Uttarayana to shed his mortal body?

The Aditya Hrdayam Stotram, a powerful mantra in praise of Surya Bhagavan was given to Shri Rama by Rishi Agastya during the final battle with Ravana. Here, Bhagavan Surya is praised as the very cause of the change of seasons that sustain life on this planet. He holds that central point whilst the earth moves towards and away from the sun during the winter and summer solstice. <blockquote>वायुर्वह्निः प्रजाः प्राण ऋतुकर्ता प्रभाकरः॥९॥

vāyurvahniḥ prajāḥ prāṇa ṛtukartā prabhākaraḥ॥9॥

(He who is both wind and fire, the Lord of the created beings, the Prana of all beings, the maker of all seasons and the giver of light.)</blockquote>The Atharva Veda (13.2.35) states that the sun is the source of all that is static and dynamic in the world. <blockquote>सूर्य आत्मा जगतस्तस्थुषश्च॥

sūrya ātmā jagatastasthuṣaśca॥</blockquote>Thus we observe how gratitude to Bhagavan Surya as a way of living lies at the centre of the rituals of the vast variety of harvest festivals celebrated across the nation. Going a step further, if we were to meditate upon the form of Surya on this day, we will realise that He is not only a protector or nourisher, but very much an eternal friend, the witnessing consciousness or light of wisdom present in our own hearts. And who wouldn't agree that flying all those kites and cooking Pongal out in the open helps us absorb great Vitamin D!

Makar Sankranti, with its rich legacy of rituals and symbolisms, encapsulates the essence of Bharatiya traditions. This festival serves as a reminder of our intrinsic connection with the cosmic cycles and the forces of nature. As we partake in these celebrations, let us embrace the deeper meanings and transform our understanding, fostering a sense of oneness with the universe. In doing so, we can truly appreciate the wisdom and beauty of our traditions, carrying forward the legacy of our ancestors with pride and reverence.

Authored by Lakshmi SIvaraman.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]