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Concepts of Mental Illness and Psychotherapy in Atharva Veda

2023-11-01T09:39:26Z

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Kaneez Fatima<sup>1</sup>

Mentor: Mohit Chandra

''<sup>1</sup>Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee''

'''Introduction:'''

The Vedas are one of the major and oldest scriptures in Hinduism that record the preliminary concepts of the faith. There are four primary Vedas i.e., Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. The Vedas mention the concepts of mind and mental illness (Avasthi, Kate & Grover, 2013). Rig Veda mentions various surgical procedures. Atharva Veda came after the Rig Veda which explains mental illness as a cause of divine factors (Sharma, 1973).

The basic approach of Atharva Veda is an integrative one where the mind, body and soul are one entity. Atharva Veda deals with multiple concepts, mental illness and its treatment are a part of a diverse concepts dealt with in the literature. The goal of the Atharva Veda is to provide insights into how to live a healthy life and prescribe rules and regulation to acquire such a life.

'''Atharva Veda and mental disorders:'''

According to Atharva Veda human body is comprises of three Gunas (elements) i.e., ''Vatta'' (Wind)'', pitta'' (Bile), ''kapha'' (Phlegm). When these elements exist in equilibrium it represents absence of any abnormality but a disequilibrium among these elements is a sign of disturbance. Like our body our mind is also be structured into three elements or Gunas of mind which are ''sattva'' (true/pure), ''rajas'' (erotic), ''tamas'' (the black). Sattva is pure and unadulterated. Rajas, is similar to Freud’s psychoanalytic concept of “Eros” which denotes pleasure, sexuality, and other pleasant feelings. ''Tamas'' is similar to Freud’s concept of Thanatos which refers to destruction (Baishya,2021). These Gunas when in equilibrium represent normality and according to Atharva Veda a disequilibrium can result in mental disorder. Every individual consists of the body and the mind Gunas, the proportion of these Gunas is different for each person this makes each individual unique. (Dandona, 2018). This concept is similar to Allport that the traits in humas are the same but what makes them unique is the combination and degree of those traits (Allport, 1937).

The abnormalities described in Atharva Veda can be classified in a number of ways. The abnormalities can be broadly categorized into two categories according to P. Arsh (1999) which are (i) Severe disturbances and (ii) disturbances in the mental processes. A more feasible classification of mental disorders described in Atharva Veda is given by Dr. H.G. Singh (1977). He categorizes the mental disorders into three categories:

Category 1-Mild disorder- This kind of disorder results when there occurs a disturbance in the normal mental processes. This in present terminology can be referred to as neurosis.

Category 2- Severe disorder- This includes disorders that are more severe in nature and beyond just some disturbances in mental processes. It includes disorders like Grahi (hysteria), Apasmar (epilepsy), Manastap (schizophrenia), Bhaya (phobia) etc

The last category of this classification system deals with remedies to improve mental health. These remedies are diverse in their aims such improving memory and learning, integration of ego, and bring harmony within a person (Pandey, 2023).

'''Atharva Veda and Psychotherapy:'''

Atharva Veda also dwells upon psychotherapeutics, this knowledge has been expanded into ''Ayurveda'' and ''Yoga'' literature. Some of the psychotherapeutic methods mentioned include: ''Sankalpa'' (Self-determination), ''Sadesh'' (Suggestion), ritualistic therapy, ''bhrahma kavacha'' (defensive belief) and ''prayascitta'' (confession, penance and sacrifice) etc. ''Sankalpa'' refers to improving the will power, volition, ego and ability to make adjustments. Majorly ''Sankalpa'' is training your will and enhancing ego. Atharva Veda recommends using ''Sankalpa'' for phobia, overcoming fearful dreams etc. ''Sadesh'' is where a therapist plays an active part and acts as a guide giving suggestions. The therapist tries to rectify the way the patients think and feels while maintaining confidentiality. This technique can be used as an additional therapeutic technique in supplement with or techniques. Indian socio-religious life is filled with rituals, beliefs and practices. Atharva Veda encourages healing of symptoms through rituals performed with certain ''mantras'' this is referred to as ritualistic therapy. ''Bhrahma kavacha'' is a defensive belief of control over one’s environment that assists with self-confidence to protect oneself from fear. ''Prayascitta'' is recognizing one’s wrong doing and voluntarily repenting in order to cleanse one’s soul. It helps with dealing with the feelings of guilt which boost the superego and hence brings a lasting change in behaviour (Rangaswani, 2021).

Conclusion:

Atharva Veda deals with abnormal behaviour and also recommends certain ways to achieve a normal and healthy life. Some of the concepts in the Atharva Veda can be found in western psychological concepts as well like body and mind elements. Concept of ''Sadesh'' (suggestion) in Atharva Veda plays an important role in modern psychotherapy, involving gaining trust of the client and guiding them to reach the solutions of their problems while maintaining confidentiality. Although being ancient Atharva Veda provides rich insights into human health and discusses concepts like integration and harmony in a person such concepts have also been discussed in modern psychology. Atharva Veda can provide inspiration for a healthy mind and body making it relevant even in modern times.

References

Sharma, S. N., A History of Vedic Literature (Varanasi: Chowkhambha Sanskrit series number 82, 1973).

Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: H. Holt and Co. ''Deutsch: Persönlichkeit. 2. Aufl'', 1959.

Avasthi, A., Kate, N., & Grover, S. (2013). Indianization of psychiatry utilizing Indian mental concepts. ''Indian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''55''(6), 136. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.105508</nowiki>

Anu Dandona. (2018). Importance of Atharva Veda in Psychology. ''Issues and Ideas in Education'', ''6''(2), 125–127. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.15415/iie.2018.62007</nowiki>

Pandey, Sandeep. (2023). The Abnormal Behaviour and Psychotherapy in Atharva Veda. 68. 70-80.

Pahi Baishya (2021) The Anomalous Conduct And Psychiatric Disorders In The Atharva Veda. Elementary Education Online, 20 (3), 4408-4416. doi:10.17051/ilkonline.2021.03.455

Rangaswami, K. (2021). Psychotherapeutic Concepts in Atharva Veda'. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 49-53.

Gau mutra ark: Antiviral prophylactic and therapeutic

2023-11-01T09:37:37Z

Anilgs: Uploaded first draft

Disharee Mallick and Shailly Tomar

Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Introduction: Tracing back to our roots of Hindu sacred texts, it is well described how a cow

has been seen as a goddess (गौ माता) and a sign of spirituality. There has been a long traditional

history of using Panchgavya extracts, such as milk, curd, ghee, urine, and dung for improving

human health. Gau ark (distillate from cow urine, also called Gau mutra/ गौ मू

') plays a

significant role in the context of its antiviral properties, as described in ancient Vedic texts.

These references also suggest that Gau ark not only has the potential to improve physical health,

it can also bring positive impact in enhancing mental and spiritual well-being.

Description: Gau ark, obtained by distilling cow urine, is a product of high importance

described as sacred product in excerpts of Vedic literature. It is regarded reverently and is

utilized as a medicinal remedy in Rigveda, Ayurveda, Yoga, Vedic astrology, and religious

rituals. Gau ark is a natural substance that contains various components such as minerals,

vitamins, antioxidants, and amino acids, potentially improving physical and mental health.

Gau ark - A Traditional Remedy: Cow urine distillate, or Gau ark, has been utilized for

millennia in Ayurvedic medicine due to its purported curative effects. Although in small

amounts, it is thought to contain important minerals like calcium, iron, and magnesium.

According to certain research, it might possess antioxidant qualities that could subdue

dangerous free radicals. Additionally, it may have anti-inflammatory properties that help those

with illnesses like arthritis. There are claims of antibacterial action, which prevents the growth

of specific bacteria and fungi, and immunomodulatory effects, which may improve immune

responses. It has cultural and spiritual importance in India. Gau ark is renowned for its

cognitive-improving qualities and is used as a treatment for a number of illnesses, such as

cancer, renal, and heart problems. Its ingredients contribute to its antiviral and antibacterial

qualities.

Current Research at IITR: While the antiseptic and antimicrobial properties of Gau ark have

been recognized in traditional medicine for centuries, more scientific research with

characterization is needed to fully understand its therapeutic potential. Considering the

multifaceted role of Ark distillate of indigenous cows, IIT Roorkee has been working

extensively to study the therapeutic properties of Ark distillate against emerging viral infections

such as Dengue and Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). As per the encouraging results in

experimental studies done, significant medicinal effects of Ark distillate against viruses

(CHIKV) has been observed. This research tested the antiviral efficacy of panchayat

components, specifically gau ark distillate from indigenous cows, against emerging viruses

such as Chikungunya, Dengue, and SARS-CoV-2. The project involves testing the antiviral

effects of gau ark distillate on virus infected cells in a laboratory setting using various assays

and techniques. Gau ark holds promise as a natural remedy with antiseptic and antiviral

properties. Institute has also made substantial progress in terms of repurposing Gau ark as

therapeutics and has filed a patent for demonstrating its prophylactic and therapeutic antiviral

effects. The revelation of its enormous potential necessitates the pursuit of its probable uses via

scientific research.

Introduction to the Concept of Reiki Energy Healing and Holistic Wellbeing

2023-11-01T09:35:47Z

Anilgs: Uploaded first draft

Introduction to the Concept of Reiki Energy Healing and Holistic Wellbeing

Shubham Kumar Rai and Pranita P Sarangi

Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Energy healing is a form of CAM (Complementary and Alternative medicine), also known as

energy medicine or vibrational medicine, based on a belief that our body is permeated by an energy

field that has an impact on our mental, physical, and emotional well-being with an ultimate goal

to achieve balance and realign energy [1, 2]. Energy medicine can be veritable (can be measured)

or putative (biofield with no standardized or reproducible measurement) [3]. The healing traditions

of indigenous cultures worldwide use vibration to restore balance through ceremonial drumming,

instruments such as the didgeridoo and the tamboura, humming, chanting, and overtone.

According to Ayurveda, different mantras and sounds are associated with energy centers called

chakras, and additional therapy aims to harmonize the chakras by using different vibrations and

tones, promoting overall vitality and energy flow. Moreover, the curative value of natural

vibrations in the forms of music and sound is increasingly supported by scientific evidence.

The energy healing practices that involve no physical touching include Reiki, chakra healing, and

aura cleansing, which can be performed remotely. Where chakra healing uses techniques such as

crystals and breathing to balance all seven chakras (as well as hundreds of potential lesser-known

chakras), Aura cleansing involves cleansing the aura or external field surrounding the body. .

"Reiki" is derived from the Japanese word (Rei), which means "Universal Life," and (Ki) which

means "Energy." The energy is mentioned as 'Ki' in Japan, 'Chi'/'qi' in China, 'prana' in Indian/vedic

(Sanskrit) practices, and is also known as the Universal fluid (ether) [4]. The concept that living

matter is composed of subtle energy called prana or vital force is mentioned in different Chandogya

Upanishads. In her book Essential Reiki,” Diane Stein, describes Reiki healing system to be

introduced to the planet by the Indian God that has been imbied into the genetic code of each living

forms. Multiple sources of literature describes the origin of Reiki in the Budhist scriptures namely,

the “Lotus Sutra”and other healing scriptures such as “Saundarya Lahari” those are thought to be

written around 2nd or 1st century BC [5]. Reiki's benefits may occur through the exact vibrational

mechanism, which likely involves increasing coherence and decreasing dissonance in the system.

Many therapies aim to restore balance in qigong, biofield-acupuncture, shiatsu, and

yoga/pranayama, to name a few. Reiki is the subtlest/ most precise of these therapies, balancing

the recipient through vibrations rather than manipulation or even the gentlest force. Reiki, which

some practitioners consider more akin to meditation than energy therapies, does not originate in

the biofield but arises from an even exquisite source: what physicists have termed the unified field

[6].

Findings by Engebretson and Wardell highlight the experience of Reiki as a complementary

therapy underpinning Eastern ideology, which has believed that health and wellness involve the

integration of energetic fields and body-spirit connections and involve biopsychosocial and

spiritual healing [7]. To some degree, little research on Reiki has been published to date. However,

2

the practice is believed to originate in the Tibetian Sutras and was renewed later in the 1800s by

Dr. Mikao Usui, a Japanese monk who explored the benefits of Reiki [8]. Different studies

involved Reiki therapy on pain and anxiety in adults to calculate the effect in randomized clinical

trials [9]. Deborah Bowden et al. demonstrated a considerable reduction in symptoms of illness

(anxiety/ depression) with participants after 30-minute sessions over a 2-8 weeks time period [10].

A similar study noted that Reiki demonstrates efficacy for symptoms commonly associated with

cancer, including quality of life [11]. Thus, deciphering and comprehending the relationship

between subtle energy perception and mental and physical healing can lead to more comprehensive

and practical approaches to better health care and well-being.

References

1. Hankey, A., Are we close to a theory of energy medicine? J Altern Complement Med,

2004. 10(1): p. 83-6.

2. Engebretson, J. and D.W. Wardell, Energy-based modalities. Nurs Clin North Am, 2007.

42(2): p. 243-59, vi.

3. Belal, M., et al., Perception of Subtle Energy "Prana", and Its Effects During Biofield

Practices: A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis. Glob Adv Integr Med Health, 2023. 12: p.

27536130231200477.

4. Rosch, P.J., Bioelectromagnetic and subtle energy medicine: the interface between mind

and matter. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2009. 1172: p. 297-311.

5. Stein, D. Essential Reiki, A Complete Guide to an Ancient Healing Art. 1995. Crossing Press.

Berkley.

6. Vitale, A., An integrative review of Reiki touch therapy research. Holist Nurs Pract, 2007.

21(4): p. 167-79; quiz 180-1.

7. Engebretson, J. and D.W. Wardell, Experience of a Reiki session. Altern Ther Health Med,

2002. 8(2): p. 48-53.

8. Usui, M. and F.A. Petter, The Original Reiki Handbook of Dr. Mikao Usui. 1999: Lotus

Press.

9. Thrane, S. and S.M. Cohen, Effect of Reiki therapy on pain and anxiety in adults: an in-

depth literature review of randomized trials with effect size calculations. Pain Manag Nurs, 2014.

15(4): p. 897-908.

10. Bowden, D., L. Goddard, and J. Gruzelier, A Randomised Controlled Single-Blind Trial

of the Efficacy of Reiki at Benefitting Mood and Well-Being. Evidence-Based Complementary

and Alternative Medicine, 2011. 2011: p. 381862.

11. Potter, P.J., Energy therapies in advanced practice oncology: an evidence-informed

practice approach. J Adv Pract Oncol, 2013. 4(3): p. 139-51.

Mantra Chanting as an intervention for stress management

2023-11-01T09:33:35Z

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'''Mantra chanting as an intervention for stress management'''

Vidisha Maithani

'''Mentor:''' Mohit Chandra

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

= '''Introduction''' =
The word Mantra refers to a combination of two Sanskrit roots: ''‘Man-’'' which refers to the mind and ''‘-tra’'' which refers to an instrument (Lolla, 2018). Thus, a mantra is referred to as an instrument of the mind, a powerful combination of verbal and auditory stimuli that can be employed to enhance and engage higher cognitive faculties such as improved focus and better thought regulation. Mantra chanting has been an integral part of the ancient Indian traditions and is currently researched with a renewed inquisitiveness to assess its potential implications on psychological and physiological well-being in individuals. According to the 2012 National Health Interview Survey in United States, 1.6% of the population practiced mantra meditation over the 12-month period suggesting 3.6 million practicing adults (Burke et al., 2017). The mechanism of mantra chanting works through the vibration produced through articulation. According to Yogi Bhajan who introduced Kundalini Yoga in the West, 84 meridian points are situated on the hard palate of the roof of the mouth, 32 pairs located alongside the inside of the teeth, and 20 located in a U shape on the centre of the palate. During the articulation of the mantra, the movement of the tongue causes the stimulation of these meridian points, which in turn stimulates the hypothalamus (Staples, 2018).

= '''Mantra chanting and its physiological correlates''' =
Various physiological measures have been employed to test the effectiveness of mantra chanting on the human brain and body. These methods include electroencephalogram (EEG), functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) research studies. 2001 research by Bernardi and colleagues, studied the effects of the Ave Maria prayer (Latin) and yoga mantras effect on the cardiovascular rhythms and the breathing rate. Both the stimuli showed slowing of breathing rate to approximately 6 breaths per minute and increased synchronisation and variability in cardiovascular rhythms. Reduction in Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and baroreflex sensitivity signals poor prognosis in cardiovascular diseases. Slow breathing enhances HRV and thus mantra chanting may have a positive impact on cardiovascular health (Bernardi et al., 2001). Another study observed the effect of Om meditation on brain function using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). The results indicated reduced activation of the pre-frontal cortex (Bhargav et al., 2016). Listening to the Om mantra sound leads to activation of left dorsolateral middle frontal cortex and right supramarginal gyrus implicating activations of neural systems involved in emotional empathy (Kumar et al., 2015). Impact of Om meditation is also observed on Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). A significant increase in GSR values is perceived when Om meditation is practiced for 30 minutes each day for a month suggesting a psychophysiological relaxation (Das & Anand, 2012).

= '''Mantra chanting and stress management''' =
The stress response in humans has evolved over centuries to serve the purpose of maintaining homeostasis in conditions of real or perceived stress (Russell & Lightman, 2019). Sympathetic nervous system activates in response to stress, leading to an increase in cortisol levels. Chronic stress or long-term exposure to stress, if left unresolved may develop into psychological disorders. Mantra chanting may act as an intervention for stress reduction and self-management of stress symptoms. Various research studies have assessed the impact of mantra meditation on stress levels. Sharma and Singh (2014) studied the impact of mantra chanting on academic stress in adolescents. Academic stress, as mentioned in the study, refers to any subjective psychological distress including perceived academic performance, worry, dissatisfaction with grades and other related distress. The stress was assessed using the Educational Stress Scale for Adolescents (ESSA) (Sun et al., 2011). OM mantra and Gayatri mantra were selected as the intervention stimuli. The results showed significant reduction of stress in five domains measured (pressure from the society, workload, worry about grade, self-expectation stress and despondency). Another study by Bajappanavar and Upadhye (2021) confirmed the impact of Om chanting on examination stress in medical students, as assessed on the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al, 1983). Similar significant results in stress reduction were measured in college students when om chanting was practiced for 30 days (Bhatt & Gupta, 2013). Mantra chanting also influences the type of stress coping mechanism utilised. Individuals who chant mantra utilise approach-coping strategies to deal with stress in comparison to individuals who do not chant mantra and use avoidance-coping strategies (Agarwal & Agarwal, 2013). Apart from academic stress, working professionals also often display the symptoms of burnout and stressful episodes. A study on nursing professionals assessed the levels of serum cortisol and salivary amylase levels to predict the stress levels (W.J et al., 2021). Cortisol and salivary amylase levels are considered as salivary stress biomarkers. Levels of cortisol represents the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity and alpha-amylase indicate the levels of sympathetic activity (Tammayan et al., 2021). In the research study, chanting of Mahamantra ''(“Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare; Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare”)'' for 20 minutes for 45 days resulted in reduction of serum cortisol and salivary amylase levels among the nursing professionals (W.J et al., 2021). Another study by Sekar and colleagues (2019) found similar results for the Mahamantra chanting on women nursing professionals. The results showed a significant increase in parasympathetic tone (LF/HF ratio), shortened Auditory Reaction Time (ART) and Visual Reaction Time (VRT) and a significant reduction in serum cortisol levels. Chanting of Om mantra also significantly reduced anxiety level in bus drivers in a duration 4 weeks (Rankhambe & Pande, 2021).

= '''Conclusion''' =
In multiple studies, mantra chanting has shown its effectiveness in a wide range of age groups from adolescents to older adults. Its effectiveness has been measured through psychological and behavioural measures. In the review of the literature, the majority of the studies included Om mantra, Gayatri mantra and Mahamantra chanting. The ancient Indian texts contains various other mantras, shlokas and suktam for different purposes such as for physical ailments, psychological disorders and overall well-being. Future research studies can observe the effects of these mantras on various other psychological aspects and as an early intervention method to manage and prevent stress.

'''Keywords:''' mantra chanting, stress management, om mantra, gayatri mantra, mahamantra, physiological studies, stress intervention

= '''References''' =
Agarwal, A., & Agarwal, A. (2013) Impact of mantra chanting on stress coping.

Bajappanavar, M., & Upadhye, J. A. (2021). Effect of OM chanting during examination stress in students. ''International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health'', ''8''(6), 140–142. www.kheljournal.com

Bernardi, L., Sleight, P., Bandinelli, G., Cencetti, S., Fattorini, L., Wdowczyc-Szulc, J., & Lagi, A. (2001). Effect of rosary prayer and yoga mantras on autonomic cardiovascular rhythms: comparative study. ''BMJ'', ''323''(7327), 1446–1449. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1446</nowiki>

Bhargav, H., Manjunath, N. K., Varambally, S., Mooventhan, A., Bista, S., Singh, D., Chhabra, H., Venkatasubramanian, G., Srinivasan, T. M., & Nagendra, H. R. (2016). Acute effects of 3G mobile phone radiations on frontal haemodynamics during a cognitive task in teenagers and possible protective value of Om chanting. ''International Review of Psychiatry'', ''28''(3), 288–298. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2016.1188784</nowiki>

Burke, A., Lam, C. N., Stussman, B., & Yang, H. (2017). Prevalence and patterns of use of mantra, mindfulness and spiritual meditation among adults in the United States. ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'', ''17''(1). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1827-8</nowiki>

Cohen, S. (1994). ''PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE''. www.mindgarden.com

Das, I., & Anand, H. (2012). Effect of Prayer and “OM” Meditation in Enhancing Galvanic Skin Response. ''Psychological Thought'', ''5'', 141–149. <nowiki>https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16193550</nowiki>

Kumar, U., Guleria, A., & Khetrapal, C. L. (2015). Neuro-cognitive aspects of “OM” sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''29''(3), 432–441. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.917609</nowiki>

Lolla, A. (2018). Mantras Help the General Psychological Well-Being of College Students: A Pilot Study. ''Journal of Religion and Health'', ''57''(1), 110–119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0371-7</nowiki>

Rankhambe, H., & Pande, S. (2021). Effect of “Om” chanting on anxiety in bus drivers. ''National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology'', ''11''(2), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5455/njppp.2021.11.10268202014102020</nowiki>

Russell, G., & Lightman, S. (2019). The human stress response. ''Nature Reviews Endocrinology'', ''15''(9), 525–534. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0228-0</nowiki>

Sekar, L., Niva, W., Maheshkumar, K., Thangavel, G., Manikandan, A., Silambanan, S., Shriraam, V., & Ramaswamy, P. (2019). Effect of Mahamantra Chanting on Autonomic and Cognitive Functions-An Interventional Study. ''JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2019/41236.12877</nowiki>

Sharma, A., & Singh, R. (n.d.). ''Combating Educational Stress in Adolescents: The Miraculous Role of Chanting Mantras''.

Sun, J., Dunne, M. P., Hou, X. yu, & Xu, A. qiang. (2011). Educational stress scale for adolescents: Development, validity, and reliability with Chinese students. ''Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment'', ''29''(6), 534–546. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282910394976</nowiki>

Tammayan, M., Jantaratnotai, N., & Pachimsawat, P. (2021). Differential responses of salivary cortisol, amylase, and chromogranin A to academic stress. ''PLoS ONE'', ''16''(8 August). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256172</nowiki>

W.J, N., Sekar, L., Manikandan, A., K, M. K., T, G., Shriraam, V., Silambanan, S., & R, P. (2021). Mahamantra chanting as an effective intervention for stress reduction among nursing professionals—A randomized controlled study. ''Advances in Integrative Medicine'', ''8''(1), 27–32. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aimed.2020.05.007</nowiki>

The Eight Limbs of Raja Yoga

2023-11-01T09:31:21Z

Anilgs: added contributor name(s)

Note: contributed by Srivardan Balaji under the guidance of Dr Sohom Chakrabarty (IIT Roorkee)

Sage Patanjali has classified the practice of Raja Yoga into eight limbs, known as Angas. The Angas of

Yoga include – Yama (restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (posture), Pranayama (regulation of

Prana), Pratyahara (inner withdrawal), Dharana (contemplation), Dhyana (concentration), and

Samadhi (integration) [1]

The classification of the observances and practices of Yoga can be

understood in association with the functioning of Prana. Prana is the internal life-force energy that

revitalizes the entire existence, including all living and non-living entities in it. Prana comes from

Purusha into Prakriti, creating a disbalance in the three Gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas – and

thereby leads to the formation of individualized consciousnesses (Ahamkara). The consciousness is

covered in the veil of Prakriti or Maya and, hence, has a false identification of the self. The purpose

of the eight Angas of Yoga is to help the practitioner (Sadhaka) realize the true nature of the self as

separate from Prakriti. This self-realization is the final stage of Samadhi, known as Kaivalya. The eight

limbs are now discussed in detail.

Yama – restraints

The Yamas refer to restraints that we must exercise to avoid the wastage of Prana. The word ‘Yama’

literally refers to control, and hence, it involves those practices that aim to voluntarily control certain

tendencies which are otherwise involuntarily expressed in a person. There are five Yamas, defined

primarily on the basis of the five ways by which Prana wastes out of the body. The Yamas are Ahimsa

(non-harming), Satya (truthfulness or non-lying), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (non-

sensuality), and Aparigraha (non-acquisitive) [2]

Though labelled external discipline, the Yamas must be applied at all levels – physical, mental, and

spiritual. Ahimsa refers to the practice of non-violence. Violence is incompatible with the Yogic path

and must be avoided at all levels. Acts such as physically or verbally hurting others, violating

promises, laws, and social order, and thinking harm to others all comprise of violence and must be

refrained from. Satya refers to the upkeep of truth. One must never try to misrepresent any truth,

feeling, emotion, or idea for one’s own benefit. It is better to remain silent on a situation rather than

to falsify it. The practice of Asteya exercises control over the tendency to steal physical objects,

ideas, or personality traits that are not one’s own. Such impersonation of others masks one’s true

nature and takes them away from the Yogic path. Brahmacharya regulates sensual pleasures from

physical objects, ideas, imaginations, and self-gratification. It refers to being situated in Brahman, to

identify oneself as the Seer and not with the sense organs, and this can only be achieved through the

practice of non-sensuality. Aparigraha shatters the chains of attachment to objects, living entities,

feelings, decisions, and emotions. The practice of Yama leads to an honourable and successful social

life. Shlokas 2.35-2.39 of Patanjali Yoga Sutras are dedicated to the benefits of practicing these

Yamas.

Niyama – observances

The Niyamas are the observances that remove blockages to the flow of Prana. The Niyamas are also

five in number: Shaucha (Cleanliness), Santosha (Contentment), Tapas (Discipline), Swadhyaya (Self-

study) and Ishwar-pranidhana (Devotional Surrender to Higher Power) [3]. The Niyamas make us

conscious of the influence of the three Gunas in our lives and empower us to get over their

influence. With continuous practice, the Niyamas decrease the Rajasic and Tamasic qualities in us

and enhance the Sattvic qualities, thereby leading us towards the state of stability or equipoise.

Ultimately, the Niyamas lead to an enriching personal life.

Shaucha refers to cleanliness, i.e., to discard all foreign impurities (Tamas) and to achieve the pure

state of natural existence (Sattva). Shaucha can be practiced at all levels – physical, mental, and

spiritual. Gratitude and non-complaint are the two practices for the cultivation of Santosha. One

must be content with what one has and must not complain about what one does not have. This

observance vanquishes passion (Rajas) and situates us in Sattva. Tapas is any activity guided by rules

and regulations. It comes from the word ‘Tapa,’ which refers to Agni (fire), whose function is to

transform. Therefore, Tapas refers to the discipline that burns away Tamas (inaction or destructive

action), and binds Rajas (activity) to Sattva (steadiness). Swadhyaya is the study of our own life from

a third person’s view. A continuous practice of such self-reflective observance elevates one to the

state of the detached observer (Seer), which is the ultimate goal of the Yogic path. It provides a

platform for self-improvement by self-evaluating one’s past actions and learn one’s own

experiences. Practicing these Niyamas, especially Swadhyaya, a Sadhaka will come to realize the

presence of a Higher Power (Ishwara) and surrender unto the divine grace. This surrender, filled with

love and devotion, is known as Ishwar-pranidhana. It shatters the practitioner’s ego as one realizes

the insignificance of the individual self in front of the Supreme.

The Yamas and Niyamas bestow certain divine qualities or powers on the practitioner. Ahimsa and

Ishwar-pranidhana imbue Divine Love, Satya and Swadhyaya reflect Divine Truth, Asteya and

Santosha bestow Divine Grace, Brahmacharya and Tapas enhance Divine Strength and Aparigraha

and Shaucha lead to Divine Freedom.

Asana – physical postures

Asanas are physical postures that enable the smooth flow of Prana in our bodies. The postures of

Yoga should embody steadiness, stability, and comfort[4]. Such a perfect posture can be achieved by

relaxing or loosening of effort, and this allows our consciousness to merge with the infinite [5]. The

attainment of such a perfected posture leads to unimpeded freedom by raising us above the play of

opposites such as heat and cold, good and bad, or pain and pleasure[6]. The primary aim of any Asana

is to achieve one or more of these – a correct posture for relaxation, to increase flexibility of the

physical body, to improve balance, to strengthen the digestive and other systems, to strengthen the

spine, and to maintain a proper sitting posture. Various Asanas are proposed and practiced –

Bhujangasana, Tadasana, Paschimottasana, Uttasana, Halasana, and Shavasana are a notable few.

Asanas also include sitting postures. A perfect sitting posture is a pre-requisite for all the

forthcoming Angas; hence, it is crucial to achieve relaxation in sitting postures. Bhadrasana,

Vajrasana, Padmasana, Sukhasana, and Siddhasana are a few examples. Of these, Vajrasana stands

out as a unique Asana that can be practiced even after the consumption of meals, as it strengthens

the digestive system.

Pranayama – regulation of Prana

Pranayama is the mechanism to control the flow of Prana. With effort relaxing, the flow of inhalation

and exhalation can be brought to a standstill; this is called breath regulation through which one

achieves Pranayama[7]

. To achieve breath regulation, one must first understand the cycle of breath.

The cycle of breath has four stages: Purak (Inhalation), Antar-Kumbhak (Holding In), Rechak

(Exhalation), and Bahir-Kumbhak (Holding Out). Then, one must observe the various aspects during

this cycle - the flow of air through the air passage, the sound of breath, the duration of breath

among others. These can be observed with conscious effort, which makes breath slow and subtle[8]

.

With continued breath regulation, the distinction between breathing in and out also falls away, and

this lifts the veil from the luminosity of the mind, leading towards self-realization[9] [10]. With

continued practice, one achieves cessation of breath with ease, which helps in perceiving Prana as

separate from breath. Once Prana can be perceived, one can channel it to different parts of the

body, leading to Pranic healing and cleansing. Standard Pranayama techniques include Bhastrika

(Bellow Breathing), Anulom Vilom (Alternate Nostril Breathing), Bharamari (Sound of Bumble Bee

Exhalation), Kapalbhaati (Rapid Pulsed Exhalation) and Ujjayi (Sound of Wave Exhalation).

Pratyahara – inner withdrawal

Pratyahara refers to withdrawing Prana inwards by reversing the direction of our senses. When

consciousness interiorizes by uncoupling from external objects, the senses do likewise; this is called

Pratyahara[11]. Once Pratyahara is achieved, the senses reside utterly in the service of self-realization

[12]

. Once Pratyahara is achieved, one possesses the ability to recognize and contemplate objects in

the Astral and Causal planes. One is also able to perceive internal organs, perceive the mind as an

internal organ, and take consciousness near and within such organs. Ultimately, one perceives the

self as pure consciousness. Pratyahara also leads to the purification of the senses, heightening sense

perceptions and intuition. It also sharpens the discriminative power known as Viveka.

Dharana – contemplation

Dharana is the process of holding or fixing the mind's attention onto one object or place [13]. While it

is possible to contemplate on physical objects, one must go beyond and focus on spiritual objects in

the Astral and Causal planes to progress towards self-realization. In the astral level, one can

contemplate on objects like the Chakras and Nadis, patterns of Light, the Light Body of the Self, the

face or form of a deity, spiritual objects and symbols, and many others. Focusing on feelings of

peace, calmness, kindness, love, joy, non-attachment, contentment, and other aspects such as

wisdom, Divine Power, discrimination, and truthfulness constitute Dharana at the causal level.

Dhyana – concentration

Once an object has been contemplated in the inner space, it is necessary to hold on to it for some

time. Dhyana refers to the one-pointed concentration on the contemplated spiritual object. The

Yoga Sutras mention that the repeated continuation or uninterrupted stream of that one point of

focus is called absorption in meditation or concentration[14]. Through Dhyana, we aim to achieve a

single-pointed perception of the object of contemplation. Ultimately, we aim for absorption of the

self with the object of contemplation.

Any meditation technique combines the three Angas – Pratyahara, Dharana, and Dhyana.

Techniques such as Watching the Breath (Air Flow as the Object of Contemplation), Watching the

Light (Patterns of Light as the Object of Contemplation), Listening to Sound (Proceeding towards

subtler sounds), Being in the Present (Contemplating on only one moment in time without worries of

the past and future) and Perceiving the Self (Focussing on oneself as the observer of everything) are

commonly practiced by different schools of Yoga. Among these, the last two techniques are higher

forms of meditation that eventually lead to liberation.

Samadhi – integration

When one is meditatively absorbed with a contemplated object, the essence of that object shines

forth in the mind as if devoid even of its own form. This state of deep absorption is called integration

or Samadhi [15]. Samadhi is the stage when everything becomes known about the contemplated

object. The practitioner achieves complete freedom from all sorts of questions regarding that object.

In other words, that person achieves a ‘Union’ with that object. The ultimate form of Samadhi,

known as Kaivalya, refers to the absorption of the individual self into the Supreme Self. This is the

stage of self-realization, where the person realizes the true nature of self as separate from Prakriti.

Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi regarding a single object comprise the perfect discipline of

consciousness, known as Samyama[16]. Once Samyama has been mastered, wisdom dawns[17]. With

the practice of Samyama on successive moments of time, one receives an insight born of

discrimination (Viveka) [18]. Such discrimination helps to distinguish pure awareness as separate from

all the elements of Prakriti. When one situates one’s consciousness in this pure awareness, one is

able to be aware of the one who is aware, i.e., the observer can observe itself [19]. This leads to the

true identification of the self and leads to self-realization. The realized one becomes a pure Seer,

untainted by the transformations produced by the three Gunas[20] Prana is realized as the Power of Consciousness

(Chit-Shakti) that activates and illumines everything to the Observer (Purusha).

Citations

[1] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.29

[2] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.30

[3] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.32

[4] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.46

[5] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.47

[6] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.48

[7] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.49

[8] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.50

[9] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.51

[10] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.52

[11] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.54

[12] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.55

[13] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.1

[14] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.2

[15] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.3

[16] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.4

[17] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.5

[18] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.53

[19] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.56

[20] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 4.34

The Eight Limbs of Raja Yoga

2023-11-01T09:20:33Z

Anilgs: Updated the first version, without too much formatting

Sage Patanjali has classified the practice of Raja Yoga into eight limbs, known as Angas. The Angas of

Yoga include – Yama (restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (posture), Pranayama (regulation of

Prana), Pratyahara (inner withdrawal), Dharana (contemplation), Dhyana (concentration), and

Samadhi (integration) [1]

The classification of the observances and practices of Yoga can be

understood in association with the functioning of Prana. Prana is the internal life-force energy that

revitalizes the entire existence, including all living and non-living entities in it. Prana comes from

Purusha into Prakriti, creating a disbalance in the three Gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas – and

thereby leads to the formation of individualized consciousnesses (Ahamkara). The consciousness is

covered in the veil of Prakriti or Maya and, hence, has a false identification of the self. The purpose

of the eight Angas of Yoga is to help the practitioner (Sadhaka) realize the true nature of the self as

separate from Prakriti. This self-realization is the final stage of Samadhi, known as Kaivalya. The eight

limbs are now discussed in detail.

Yama – restraints

The Yamas refer to restraints that we must exercise to avoid the wastage of Prana. The word ‘Yama’

literally refers to control, and hence, it involves those practices that aim to voluntarily control certain

tendencies which are otherwise involuntarily expressed in a person. There are five Yamas, defined

primarily on the basis of the five ways by which Prana wastes out of the body. The Yamas are Ahimsa

(non-harming), Satya (truthfulness or non-lying), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (non-

sensuality), and Aparigraha (non-acquisitive) [2]

Though labelled external discipline, the Yamas must be applied at all levels – physical, mental, and

spiritual. Ahimsa refers to the practice of non-violence. Violence is incompatible with the Yogic path

and must be avoided at all levels. Acts such as physically or verbally hurting others, violating

promises, laws, and social order, and thinking harm to others all comprise of violence and must be

refrained from. Satya refers to the upkeep of truth. One must never try to misrepresent any truth,

feeling, emotion, or idea for one’s own benefit. It is better to remain silent on a situation rather than

to falsify it. The practice of Asteya exercises control over the tendency to steal physical objects,

ideas, or personality traits that are not one’s own. Such impersonation of others masks one’s true

nature and takes them away from the Yogic path. Brahmacharya regulates sensual pleasures from

physical objects, ideas, imaginations, and self-gratification. It refers to being situated in Brahman, to

identify oneself as the Seer and not with the sense organs, and this can only be achieved through the

practice of non-sensuality. Aparigraha shatters the chains of attachment to objects, living entities,

feelings, decisions, and emotions. The practice of Yama leads to an honourable and successful social

life. Shlokas 2.35-2.39 of Patanjali Yoga Sutras are dedicated to the benefits of practicing these

Yamas.

Niyama – observances

The Niyamas are the observances that remove blockages to the flow of Prana. The Niyamas are also

five in number: Shaucha (Cleanliness), Santosha (Contentment), Tapas (Discipline), Swadhyaya (Self-

study) and Ishwar-pranidhana (Devotional Surrender to Higher Power) [3]. The Niyamas make us

conscious of the influence of the three Gunas in our lives and empower us to get over their

influence. With continuous practice, the Niyamas decrease the Rajasic and Tamasic qualities in us

and enhance the Sattvic qualities, thereby leading us towards the state of stability or equipoise.

Ultimately, the Niyamas lead to an enriching personal life.

Shaucha refers to cleanliness, i.e., to discard all foreign impurities (Tamas) and to achieve the pure

state of natural existence (Sattva). Shaucha can be practiced at all levels – physical, mental, and

spiritual. Gratitude and non-complaint are the two practices for the cultivation of Santosha. One

must be content with what one has and must not complain about what one does not have. This

observance vanquishes passion (Rajas) and situates us in Sattva. Tapas is any activity guided by rules

and regulations. It comes from the word ‘Tapa,’ which refers to Agni (fire), whose function is to

transform. Therefore, Tapas refers to the discipline that burns away Tamas (inaction or destructive

action), and binds Rajas (activity) to Sattva (steadiness). Swadhyaya is the study of our own life from

a third person’s view. A continuous practice of such self-reflective observance elevates one to the

state of the detached observer (Seer), which is the ultimate goal of the Yogic path. It provides a

platform for self-improvement by self-evaluating one’s past actions and learn one’s own

experiences. Practicing these Niyamas, especially Swadhyaya, a Sadhaka will come to realize the

presence of a Higher Power (Ishwara) and surrender unto the divine grace. This surrender, filled with

love and devotion, is known as Ishwar-pranidhana. It shatters the practitioner’s ego as one realizes

the insignificance of the individual self in front of the Supreme.

The Yamas and Niyamas bestow certain divine qualities or powers on the practitioner. Ahimsa and

Ishwar-pranidhana imbue Divine Love, Satya and Swadhyaya reflect Divine Truth, Asteya and

Santosha bestow Divine Grace, Brahmacharya and Tapas enhance Divine Strength and Aparigraha

and Shaucha lead to Divine Freedom.

Asana – physical postures

Asanas are physical postures that enable the smooth flow of Prana in our bodies. The postures of

Yoga should embody steadiness, stability, and comfort[4]. Such a perfect posture can be achieved by

relaxing or loosening of effort, and this allows our consciousness to merge with the infinite [5]. The

attainment of such a perfected posture leads to unimpeded freedom by raising us above the play of

opposites such as heat and cold, good and bad, or pain and pleasure[6]. The primary aim of any Asana

is to achieve one or more of these – a correct posture for relaxation, to increase flexibility of the

physical body, to improve balance, to strengthen the digestive and other systems, to strengthen the

spine, and to maintain a proper sitting posture. Various Asanas are proposed and practiced –

Bhujangasana, Tadasana, Paschimottasana, Uttasana, Halasana, and Shavasana are a notable few.

Asanas also include sitting postures. A perfect sitting posture is a pre-requisite for all the

forthcoming Angas; hence, it is crucial to achieve relaxation in sitting postures. Bhadrasana,

Vajrasana, Padmasana, Sukhasana, and Siddhasana are a few examples. Of these, Vajrasana stands

out as a unique Asana that can be practiced even after the consumption of meals, as it strengthens

the digestive system.

Pranayama – regulation of Prana

Pranayama is the mechanism to control the flow of Prana. With effort relaxing, the flow of inhalation

and exhalation can be brought to a standstill; this is called breath regulation through which one

achieves Pranayama[7]

. To achieve breath regulation, one must first understand the cycle of breath.

The cycle of breath has four stages: Purak (Inhalation), Antar-Kumbhak (Holding In), Rechak

(Exhalation), and Bahir-Kumbhak (Holding Out). Then, one must observe the various aspects during

this cycle - the flow of air through the air passage, the sound of breath, the duration of breath

among others. These can be observed with conscious effort, which makes breath slow and subtle[8]

.

With continued breath regulation, the distinction between breathing in and out also falls away, and

this lifts the veil from the luminosity of the mind, leading towards self-realization[9] [10]. With

continued practice, one achieves cessation of breath with ease, which helps in perceiving Prana as

separate from breath. Once Prana can be perceived, one can channel it to different parts of the

body, leading to Pranic healing and cleansing. Standard Pranayama techniques include Bhastrika

(Bellow Breathing), Anulom Vilom (Alternate Nostril Breathing), Bharamari (Sound of Bumble Bee

Exhalation), Kapalbhaati (Rapid Pulsed Exhalation) and Ujjayi (Sound of Wave Exhalation).

Pratyahara – inner withdrawal

Pratyahara refers to withdrawing Prana inwards by reversing the direction of our senses. When

consciousness interiorizes by uncoupling from external objects, the senses do likewise; this is called

Pratyahara[11]. Once Pratyahara is achieved, the senses reside utterly in the service of self-realization

[12]

. Once Pratyahara is achieved, one possesses the ability to recognize and contemplate objects in

the Astral and Causal planes. One is also able to perceive internal organs, perceive the mind as an

internal organ, and take consciousness near and within such organs. Ultimately, one perceives the

self as pure consciousness. Pratyahara also leads to the purification of the senses, heightening sense

perceptions and intuition. It also sharpens the discriminative power known as Viveka.

Dharana – contemplation

Dharana is the process of holding or fixing the mind's attention onto one object or place [13]. While it

is possible to contemplate on physical objects, one must go beyond and focus on spiritual objects in

the Astral and Causal planes to progress towards self-realization. In the astral level, one can

contemplate on objects like the Chakras and Nadis, patterns of Light, the Light Body of the Self, the

face or form of a deity, spiritual objects and symbols, and many others. Focusing on feelings of

peace, calmness, kindness, love, joy, non-attachment, contentment, and other aspects such as

wisdom, Divine Power, discrimination, and truthfulness constitute Dharana at the causal level.

Dhyana – concentration

Once an object has been contemplated in the inner space, it is necessary to hold on to it for some

time. Dhyana refers to the one-pointed concentration on the contemplated spiritual object. The

Yoga Sutras mention that the repeated continuation or uninterrupted stream of that one point of

focus is called absorption in meditation or concentration[14]. Through Dhyana, we aim to achieve a

single-pointed perception of the object of contemplation. Ultimately, we aim for absorption of the

self with the object of contemplation.

Any meditation technique combines the three Angas – Pratyahara, Dharana, and Dhyana.

Techniques such as Watching the Breath (Air Flow as the Object of Contemplation), Watching the

Light (Patterns of Light as the Object of Contemplation), Listening to Sound (Proceeding towards

subtler sounds), Being in the Present (Contemplating on only one moment in time without worries of

the past and future) and Perceiving the Self (Focussing on oneself as the observer of everything) are

commonly practiced by different schools of Yoga. Among these, the last two techniques are higher

forms of meditation that eventually lead to liberation.

Samadhi – integration

When one is meditatively absorbed with a contemplated object, the essence of that object shines

forth in the mind as if devoid even of its own form. This state of deep absorption is called integration

or Samadhi [15]. Samadhi is the stage when everything becomes known about the contemplated

object. The practitioner achieves complete freedom from all sorts of questions regarding that object.

In other words, that person achieves a ‘Union’ with that object. The ultimate form of Samadhi,

known as Kaivalya, refers to the absorption of the individual self into the Supreme Self. This is the

stage of self-realization, where the person realizes the true nature of self as separate from Prakriti.

Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi regarding a single object comprise the perfect discipline of

consciousness, known as Samyama[16]. Once Samyama has been mastered, wisdom dawns[17]. With

the practice of Samyama on successive moments of time, one receives an insight born of

discrimination (Viveka) [18]. Such discrimination helps to distinguish pure awareness as separate from

all the elements of Prakriti. When one situates one’s consciousness in this pure awareness, one is

able to be aware of the one who is aware, i.e., the observer can observe itself [19]. This leads to the

true identification of the self and leads to self-realization. The realized one becomes a pure Seer,

untainted by the transformations produced by the three Gunas[20] Prana is realized as the Power of Consciousness

(Chit-Shakti) that activates and illumines everything to the Observer (Purusha).

Citations

[1] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.29

[2] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.30

[3] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.32

[4] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.46

[5] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.47

[6] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.48

[7] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.49

[8] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.50

[9] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.51

[10] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.52

[11] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.54

[12] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 2.55

[13] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.1

[14] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.2

[15] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.3

[16] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.4

[17] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.5

[18] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.53

[19] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 3.56

[20] Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Shloka 4.34