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Sāmatvārtha : Transforming India's Welfare and Urban Policies for a Regenerative Future

2026-09-08T06:22:13Z

Neeraja:

This article discusses the need for a simpler approach to Indian welfare and urban policies for a regenerative future, highlighting the complexities and pitfalls of current systems.

==== Welfare & Urbanism - 1000s of policies, same old fallacies ====
Just like the taxation story, welfare and urbanism in India are no stranger to spaghetti convolution of policies. We will take a much briefer look into where the trend is heading towards, much dangerously so. Then we will finally explore potential simpler heuristics to solve these key pillars of taxation, welfare & urbanism for a regenerative solarpunk indic futurism.

==== Welfare State of Freebies ====
The welfare system in India is also a labyrinth of overlapping social welfare and security schemes for its citizens. These schemes are funded either by the central government, state government, or concurrently. Schemes fully funded by the central government are referred to as “central sector schemes” (CS), while those mainly funded by the center and implemented by the states are “centrally sponsored schemes” (CSS). In the 2022 Union budget of India, there were 740 central sector (CS) schemes and 65 centrally sponsored schemes (CSS). The funding for these CSS’s in 2022 was ₹ 442,781 crore. There were 157 CSs and CSSs with individual funding of over ₹ 500 crore each.

While the intent of these schemes are noble, ground realities reveal a stark disparity. The challenges lie not just in often flawed policy design, but also with the last-mile implementation hell-hole. Concerns persist over corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, rampant leakages and market distortions, which dilute the intended impact of any welfare initiative. It’s the same control freak begets power creep behavior all over again! Means-testing morphs into a tool of rent-seeking and exclusion than of efficient welfare. I mean you get the idea, it’s the same story as taxes. India under Narendra Modi focused on Direct Benefit Transfers to tackle some of these issues, step by step, but now there is a new hydra in town - freebies!

There are no heroes in this story, from AAP’s free electricity and what not subversion in Delhi, Congress’s free electricity and bus rides in Karnataka, to BJP’s Ladli Lakshmi in MP. This is very dangerous policy making becoming a quick norm in India. There is no sustainability baked in, but rhetoric is selling like hot cakes and alcohol during election seasons. And now when the budget deficits are starting to hit real governance and welfare work, typical politicking on ‘federalism’ to ‘tax burden’ has begun to deflect away from fiscal responsibility.

The latest in this trend is the announcement by the congress party of ensuring INR 1L per annum cash benefit transfer to women from poor families. This is not great because it neither has the benefit of UBI (no means testing, universal upliftment of opportunity) yet has the pitfall of huge fiscal burden without much responsibility as well as typical implementation corruption and leakages. All in all these are dangerous policies considering everything, and if the political economy is getting settled on this hill, there needs to come a trojan horse which can cut through this trend and get better outcomes with much responsibility and with universal autonomy.

So while the intent behind the multitude of welfare schemes in India is commendable, and we are not questioning the need for welfare safety net, but we can indeed question if there are some easier approaches as well which can aggregate most of the intentions as categorized in above chart (Education, Food, Civic, Medical, etc. ) into effective and efficient outcome driven approach, possibly also avoiding the pitfalls of means-testing and while providing more autonomy to the citizen on the welfare they prioritize for themselves.

==== Masterplan for Urban Decline ====
Our cities, towns, villages are very much superorganisms like ant colonies. Some people move in, some move out, some stay put where they have been. Through these migrations, the superorganism also grows, evolves and sometimes even dies down. India is urbanizing. India needs to urbanize. But does urbanization only mean migration to bigger and bigger cities - with ever worsening civic amenities, or can it also mean a Cambrian explosion of more local urban clusters out of their rural past?

The urban planning process in India is characterized by a multiplicity of local bodies, rigid master plans, restrictive zoning regulations, whimsical solutions, etc. This often leads to inefficient land use and hinders the ability of cities to grow and adapt to changing needs. So when rapid urbanization leads to unprecedented growth in India’s cities, it strains existing infrastructure and resources. Bimal Patel recently revealed an interesting example of this, where setback rules have contributed to just dead parcels of land which could instead have been public streets or civic infrastructure centers, and simply reclaiming setbacks in a city like Mumbai can unlock loads of under-utilized land. This is just one random exhibit!

To quote from one of his public articles -<blockquote>“The consequence of not focusing on land use efficiency is not small. In well-planned cities like London, Paris and New York, approximately 40% of the land is devoted to the public domain, 45% covered by buildings and 15% leftover as private open space. In stark contrast, for Mumbai (Island City), the proportion is 24% in the public domain, 24% covered by buildings and 52% leftover as private open space!”</blockquote>Another exhibit for misguided urban policy can be the random rural/urban classification and respective regulations, which certainly don’t help when any city starts expanding beyond what ‘masterplans’ allowed for. This urban sprawl not only hampers livability but also contributes to environmental degradation and social inequalities. The influx of rural migrants into urban centers exacerbates issues such as inadequate housing, overburdened transportation networks, and insufficient access to basic amenities.

Couple these factors with poor local governance with plethora of corruption, shadow real estate economy to hide untaxed income or save further tax on capital gains, automobile centric worldview preventing prioritization of many necessary civic amenities & tree-cover, weird regulations from FSI to setbacks, disregard for natural ecosystems, etc. our cities are just somehow making it through. There is so much which can be expanded on each point, but hopefully you get the idea!

When we consider that India is 10x the density of the US, 5x of Europe and around 2.5x of China, this patch-fix approach to urbanism will lead us to nowhere great. Just as living organisms adapt to changes in their environment, urban landscape & cities require flexible planning frameworks that can accommodate evolving needs and challenges. Indians might love its Chandigarh, but the reality is that it’s the worst approach we can take to our urbanism. What India instead needs is 100s of Singapore & Kyoto - where natural ecosystems, cultural heritage and urban lifestyle can blend seamlessly with a regenerative soul. Also, way more trees and less asphalt at any random place!

Doughnut Economics Action Labs has come with with an exhaustive [https://doughnuteconomics.org/tools/doughnut-for-urban-development-manual-and-tools Urban Development Manual and Toolkit] for any planner to gauge where their region stand, so we will not repeat that exercise and limit our approach to just address potential tokenized protocol for air-space, greenery & public space credits which can help accelerate this journey!

Authored by Moberation.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Philosophy]][[Category:Health and Wellness Sciences]][[Category:Philosophy]][[Category:Health and Wellness Sciences]]

Sāmatvārtha : Transforming India's Welfare and Urban Policies for a Regenerative Future

2026-09-08T06:22:07Z

Neeraja:

Sāmatvārtha : Transforming India's Welfare and Urban Policies for a Regenerative Future

2026-09-08T06:22:02Z

Neeraja:

মহাভারতের যুদ্ধনীতি

2026-05-15T06:27:50Z

Neeraja:

'''ভূমিকা'''

ভারতের সনাতন সংস্কৃতি এবং ধর্মের এক অমূল্য আকরগ্রন্থ – মহাভারত, তবে ঐতিহাসিক উপাদানের উৎস হিসাবে এই গ্রন্থের মূল্য আরও ব্যাপক। সেক্ষেত্রে মহাভারত শুধুমাত্র ভারতেরই নয় বিশ্ব ইতিহাসেরও একটি দুর্লভ গ্রন্থ। সমকালীন ভারতবর্ষের সমাজ, সংস্কৃতি, সভ্যতা, সাহিত্য, ধর্মনীতি, রাজনীতি এবং প্রথাগত আচার-আচরণের যাবতীয় তথ্য এবং তত্ত্ব মহাভারতে খুঁজে পাওয়া যায়। তাই মহাভারতকে বিশ্বকোষ বললেও অত্যুক্তি হবে না। এই গ্রন্থকে মানবসভ্যতার আচার-সংহিতাও বলা যেতে পারে। আদর্শ সমাজের পরিকাঠামো, সুশাসন, বিচারব্যবস্থা তথা সুরক্ষাব্যবস্থা সম্পর্কে বিস্তারিতভাবে মহাভারতের একাধিক পর্বে আলোচনা করা হয়েছে। এই আলোচ্য বিষয়বস্তুর মধ্যে যুদ্ধনীতি অন্যতম।

'''ক. মহাভারতে যুদ্ধনীতির উৎস'''

কুরুক্ষেত্রের যুদ্ধকে কেন্দ্র করে মহাভারত-চর্চার ধারা আবহমান কাল থেকে হয়ে আসছে। বলা বাহুল্য, মহাভারতের মধ্যেও কুরুক্ষেত্রের যুদ্ধ-প্রসঙ্গে একাধিক কথোপকথন রয়েছে। সর্বোপরি এই যুদ্ধকে কেন্দ্র করেই মানবসভ্যতা ‘শ্রীমদ্ভগবদ্গীতা’-র মতো এমন একটি অমূল্য সম্পদ লাভ করেছে। তাই সমগ্র মহাভারতের মধ্যে যুদ্ধের অংশটি বিশেষ তাৎপর্যপূর্ণ। এই অংশে তৎকালীন ভারতবর্ষের যুদ্ধনীতি এবং পদ্ধতির ইতিহাসসম্মত বিবরণ রয়েছে। মহাভারতের যুদ্ধে শুধুমাত্র শত্রু নিধনই মুখ্য নয় তার সঙ্গে এমন কিছু নীতিগত বিষয়ও রয়েছে যা গবেষণা এবং ব্যাখ্যার অপেক্ষা রাখে। ভারতের তৎকালীন রাজন্যবর্গ এবং তাঁদের শাসনব্যবস্থার একটি অবিচ্ছেদ্য অঙ্গ হিসাবে যুদ্ধ, অত্যন্ত গুরুত্বপূর্ণ ঘটনা। এই যুদ্ধের বিবরণ থেকেই আমারা তৎকালীন ভারতবর্ষের প্রতিরক্ষাব্যবস্থা, সমরনীতি, সমরবিদ্যা, অস্ত্রশস্ত্র প্রভৃতি সম্পর্কে পূর্ণাবয়ব জ্ঞান লাভ করতে পারি। শ্রীমদ্ভগবদ্গীতার প্রথম অধ্যায়ের প্রথম শ্লোকেই কুরুক্ষেত্রকে ধর্মক্ষেত্র বলা হয়েছে।১ ধর্ম কখনোই নীতিশূন্য হতে পারে না, তাই কুরুক্ষেত্রের যুদ্ধেরও নীতি থাকাটাই স্বাভাবিক। বর্তমান প্রবন্ধে মহাভারতের সেই যুদ্ধনীতি সম্পর্কেই আলোচনা করা হয়েছে।

'''খ. গুণত্রয়বিভাগ এবং ধর্মযুদ্ধ'''

ইতিহাসের প্রত্যেকটি কালখণ্ডেই নানাভাবে যুদ্ধ-বিগ্রহের পরিস্থিতি তৈরি হয়েছে। কখনো সাম্রাজ্যবাদের লালসায় আবার কখনো শত্রুদমনের অভীপ্সায় মানুষ মানুষের ওপর প্রাণনাশের উদ্দেশ্যে ঝাঁপিয়ে পড়েছে। যুদ্ধের ঘটনাটি বাহ্যিক হলেও এর নেপথ্যে-থাকা প্রবৃত্তিটি মানুষের আন্তরিক। কারণ সনাতন শাস্ত্র অনুযায়ী গুণাবলী অনুসারে মানুষের প্রকৃতি ভিন্ন হয়ে থাকে। এই গুণাবলীকেই বলা হয় – বর্ণ।২ বর্ণ মানুষের স্বভাব এবং মানসিকতাকে নিয়ন্ত্রণ করে তাই বর্ণভেদে মানুষের প্রবৃত্তির মধ্যেও পার্থক্য দেখা যায়। এই শাস্ত্রসম্মত সিদ্ধান্তের মাধ্যমে যদি মানুষের যুযুৎসাকে ব্যাখ্যা করা হয় তাহলে দেখা যাবে যে, শুধুমাত্র ব্যক্তিস্বার্থ বা জিঘাংসা চরিতার্থ করার জন্য মানুষ যুদ্ধ করে না। তার গুণানুসারী প্রবৃত্তিও যুদ্ধের প্রতি তার আকর্ষণের জন্য দায়ী। এই গুণ এবং স্বভাবের ওপর নির্ভর করে প্রাচীন ভারতীয় বর্ণব্যবস্থায় ক্ষত্রিয় বর্ণকে সমাজে শাসক রূপে মেনে নেওয়া হয়েছে। তিনি শুধুমাত্র শাসনকার্য পরিচালনাই করবেন না, একই সঙ্গে বাহ্যিক এবং আভ্যন্তরীণ শত্রুর হাত থেকে দেশকে রক্ষাও করবেন। এখানে বলা বাহুল্য, তৎকালীন ভারতবর্ষে শাসক ব্যতীত স্বধর্মনিষ্ঠ ক্ষত্রিয়রাও অন্যায়ের বিরুদ্ধে অস্ত্রধারণ করতে বিন্দুমাত্র সংকোচ বোধ করতেন না। ক্ষত্রিয়রা ধর্মযুদ্ধকেই শ্রেয় বলে মনে করতেন।৩ অন্যায়ের প্রতিবাদ করার জন্য যে যুদ্ধ করা হয়, তাকেই বলে ধর্মযুদ্ধ। এই ধর্মযুদ্ধের জন্য মহাভারতে অনেক জায়গায় ক্ষত্রিয়দের উৎসাহিত করা হয়েছে। বিদুলোপাখ্যানে বীরাঙ্গনা ক্ষত্রিয় নারী তাঁর কাপুরুষ পুত্রদের ধিক্কার জানিয়ে যুদ্ধের জন্য উৎসাহিত করেছেন। শান্তিপর্বে বলা হয়েছে ‘জরা-ব্যাধিতে শয্যাশায়ী হয়ে মৃত্যু হওয়া ক্ষত্রিয়ের কাছে অধর্ম। তার বীরোচিত পদ্ধতিতেই যুদ্ধে প্রাণত্যাগ করা উচিত।’৪ যে ধর্মের পথে যুদ্ধ করে সে-ই জয়ী হয়।৫ অন্যদিকে ধর্মযুদ্ধের রীতিনীতি অমান্য করলে তার বিনাশ নিশ্চিত।৬

'''গ. মহাভারতে যুদ্ধনীতির প্রাথমিক পরিচয়'''

মহাভারতের যুদ্ধ শুধুমাত্র প্রবৃত্তিগত তাড়নায় হয়নি। এর নেপথ্যে সাম্রাজ্যলিপ্সা, কর্তৃত্বের অহংকার, স্বাজত্যবোধের অভাব, ঈর্ষা এবং আরও নানা ধরণের স্থূল-সূক্ষ্ম মনোবৃত্তি সক্রিয় ছিল। মহাভারতে দেখা যায় যে, উভয়পক্ষেরই কোনো-না-কোনো মুখপাত্র এই যুদ্ধকে স্থগিত করার প্রচেষ্টা করেছেন। তথাপি পরিস্থিতির পরিপ্রেক্ষিতে যুদ্ধ যখন অবশ্যম্ভাবী হয়ে দেখা দিয়েছে তখন যোদ্ধারাও তাঁদের ক্ষাত্রধর্মের অবহেলা করেননি। তবে এই মহাযুদ্ধের সূচনালগ্নে বেশকিছু নিয়মনীতি এবং যুদ্ধের আনুষঙ্গিক বিষয়ের বর্ণনা করা হয়েছে। এই বর্ণনা থেকেই জানা যায় যে সেই সময় কীভাবে যুদ্ধের প্রস্তুতি চলত। সর্বপ্রথম দুই পক্ষ মিলিত হয়ে যুদ্ধের স্থান নির্বাচন করতেন। নির্বাচিত স্থানে উভয়পক্ষের সেনাবাহিনী যুদ্ধ-সামগ্রী নিয়ে উপস্থ হত। সেনাবাহিনীর শিবির স্থাপন করা হত এবং প্রচুর পরিমাণে খাদ্য ও পানীয় সংগ্রহ করা হত। যুদ্ধ চলাকালীন শিল্পী, বৈদ্য, সূত, মাগধ, পুরোহিত প্রমুখের বসবাসের জন্য নির্দিষ্ট স্থান নির্ধারণ করা হত। উভয়পক্ষের প্রধান প্রধান যোদ্ধাগণ যুদ্ধের নীতি নির্ধারণ করতেন।

মহাভারতে যুদ্ধনীতি এবং ধর্মযুদ্ধের নিয়মাবলী সম্পর্কে একাধিক অধ্যায়ে উল্লেখ করা হয়েছে। সেখান থেকেই জানা যায় যে, যুদ্ধের সময়, ন্যূনতম শিষ্টাচার পালন করা হত। যুদ্ধের সময়কাল ছিল সূর্যোদয় থেকে সূর্যাস্ত পর্যন্ত। প্রতিদিন যুদ্ধের শেষে পারস্পরিক মেলামেশায় কোনো বাধা ছিল না। প্রধান প্রতিদ্বন্দ্বীর সঙ্গেই যুদ্ধ হত। উভয়পক্ষের যোদ্ধার বাহন একইরকম হওয়ার নিয়ম ছিল। বাগযুদ্ধে ইচ্ছুক যোদ্ধার সঙ্গে বাগযুদ্ধই করা হত। শস্ত্র ছাড়া কেবলমাত্র মল্লযুদ্ধে আগ্রহী প্রতিপক্ষের সঙ্গে মল্লযুদ্ধই করা হত। প্রহার করার আগে প্রতিপক্ষকে সাবধান করে দেওয়া ছিল বাধ্যতামূলক। যুদ্ধের ক্ষেত্রে বেশকিছু নিষেধাজ্ঞা ছিল, যেমন - শরণাগত, যুদ্ধবিমুখ, নিরস্ত্র যোদ্ধা, বাহন (হাতি, ঘোড়া ইত্যাদি), সূত, শস্ত্রবাহক, রণবাদক এবং স্তুতিগায়ক, কবচহীন যোদ্ধা, স্ত্রী, বালক, দীনজন প্রমুখের সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করা হত না। বিপক্ষ নিরস্ত্র হয়ে পড়লে তাকে তার ইচ্ছা অনুযায়ী উপযুক্ত অস্ত্র দিয়ে যুদ্ধের জন্য আহ্বান করাই ছিল ক্ষাত্রধর্ম।৭ ক্ষাত্রধর্ম অনুযায়ী শরণাগত যোদ্ধাকে নিজের সন্তানের মতো রক্ষা করার কথা বলা হয়েছে।৮ মহাভারতের যুদ্ধে অনেক সময় উল্লিখিত নিয়মগুলি লঙ্ঘন করা হয়েছে, তবু ঐতিহাসিক উপাদান হিসাবে এই যুদ্ধনীতিগুলি থেকে তৎকালীন ভারতবর্ষের রাজন্যবর্গের মানসিকতা ও শাসনপ্রণালী সম্পর্কে স্পষ্ট ধারণা লাভ করা যেতে পারে।

'''ঘ. মহাভারতীয় যুদ্ধনীতি'''

কৌরব, পাণ্ডব তথা সোমকগণ সম্মিলিত হয়ে আসন্ন যুদ্ধের কিছু নিয়মনীতি নির্ধারণ করেন। তাঁরা নির্বিবাদে যুদ্ধের কিছু নির্দিষ্ট বিধিনিষেধ পালনে সম্মত হন এবং সেগুলি পালন করার জন্য একে অপরকে প্রাণিত করেন।৯ মহাভারতে যদিও যুদ্ধনীতির পালন এবং লঙ্ঘন – উভয়েরই উদাহরণ রয়েছে। বিভিন্ন ভাগে বিভক্ত সেই যুদ্ধনীতিগুলিকে মহাভারতের উদাহরণ-সহ আলোচনা করা হল।

'''ঘ. ১. সূর্যাস্তের পর যুদ্ধবিরতি'''

দুই পক্ষের যুদ্ধনীতি নির্ধারকগণ সম্মত হয়ে ঠিক করেন যে, সূর্যোদয় থেকে সূর্যাস্ত পর্যন্ত যুদ্ধ চলবে এবং উভয় পক্ষের রথী, মহারথী এবং অতিরথীগণ এই নিয়ম পালন করবেন। উভয় পক্ষের সেনাপতিগণ সূর্যাস্তের পর শঙ্খধ্বনি করে যুদ্ধবিরতি ঘোষণা করবেন। সূর্যাস্তের পর প্রতিপক্ষের ওপর আক্রমণ করা যাবে না এমনকী যোদ্ধা প্রহার করার জন্য যে তরবারি উদ্যত করেছে, তাকে পুনরায় কোষের মধ্যে রেখে দেবেন।

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি লঙ্ঘনের উদাহরণ'''

যুদ্ধের শেষে রাত্রিবেলা পাণ্ডব শিবিরে ঢুকে ঘুমন্ত ধৃষ্টদ্যুম্নকে অশ্বত্থামা হত্যা করেন১০; যুদ্ধামন্যু এবং উত্তমৌজা নামে দুই রাজকুমারকে হত্যা করেন১১; দ্রৌপদীর পাঁচ সন্তানকে হত্যা করেন১২; অভিমন্যুর স্ত্রী উত্তরার গর্ভজাত সন্তানকে হত্যা করার জন্য ব্রহ্মাস্ত্র নিক্ষেপ করেন।১৩ অশ্বত্থামার সঙ্গে এই কাজে সহায়ক রূপে ছিলেন কৃপাচার্য এবং কৃতবর্মা। তাঁরা পলায়নরত সৈনিকদের হত্যা করেন এবং পাণ্ডব-শিবিরে আগুন লাগিয়ে দেন।১৪ যুদ্ধের নিয়ম লঙ্ঘন করে উল্লেখিত সমস্ত ঘটনা রাতের অন্ধকারে ঘটেছিল।

'''ঘ. ২. যুদ্ধবিরতির পর শত্রুতাপূর্ণ আচরণ নিষিদ্ধ'''

যুদ্ধ চলাকালীন উদয়াস্ত উভয়পক্ষ একে অপরের শত্রু হলেও সূর্যাস্তের পর উভয়কেই সারাদিনের বৈরিতা ভুলে গিয়ে পারস্পরের প্রতি প্রীতি এবং সৌহার্দপূর্ণ আচরণ করতে হবে।১৫ উভয় পক্ষের যে কেউ এই সময় একে অপরের শিবিরে প্রয়োজনে যাতায়াত করতে পারবে অথবা খাদ্যসামগ্রী আদানপ্রদান করতে পারবে। সর্বোপরি শত্রুভাবাপন্ন কোনো ধরণের পরিস্থিতি সূর্যাস্তের পর আর থাকবে না।

'''ঘ. ৩. সজাতীয় যুদ্ধ'''

সজাতীয় যুদ্ধের অর্থ হল যোদ্ধা সবসময় নিজের বর্গ বা সমপ্রতিদ্বন্দ্বীর সঙ্গেই যুদ্ধ করবে। অবর্গীয় বা অসমজাতীয় কারোর সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করতে নিষেধ করা হয়েছে। অসমজাতীয় প্রতিপক্ষের মধ্যে উল্লেখযোগ্য –

q যে যোদ্ধা বাক্‌যুদ্ধ করতে চাইবে তার সঙ্গে প্রতিপক্ষকে বাক্‌যুদ্ধই করতে হবে। এক্ষেত্রে কোনো ধরণের অস্ত্র-শস্ত্রের প্রয়োগ নিষিদ্ধ ছিল।১৬

q সেনাবাহিনী থেকে বহিষ্কৃত যোদ্ধার ওপর আক্রমণ করা নিষিদ্ধ ছিল। তাদের বধ করাও ছিল যুদ্ধনীতির বিরুদ্ধে।১৭

q একজন রথী তার বিপক্ষের রথীর সঙ্গেই যুদ্ধ করবে। একইভাবে মহারথী, মহারথীর সঙ্গে এবং অতিরথী অতিরথীর সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করবে।১৮

q গজারোহী কোনো যোদ্ধা কেবলমাত্র প্রতিপক্ষের গজারোহীর সঙ্গেই যুদ্ধ করবে। অশ্বারোহী, পদাতিক বা রথারূঢ় যোদ্ধার সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করতে পারবে না।১৯

q অশ্বারোহী যোদ্ধা কেবলমাত্র তার অশ্বারোহী প্রতিপক্ষের সঙ্গেই যুদ্ধ করবে। অন্য কোনো যোদ্ধার সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করা যুদ্ধনীতির বিরুদ্ধে।২০

q পদাতিক যোদ্ধা তার পদাতিক প্রতিপক্ষের সঙ্গেই কেবলমাত্র যুদ্ধ করবে। অন্য কোনো যোদ্ধার সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করবে না।২১

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি পালনের উদাহরণ'''

ভীষ্ম-অর্জুনের যুদ্ধ২২, সাত্যকি-কৃতবর্মার যুদ্ধ২৩, ভীম-দুর্যোধনের যুদ্ধ২৪, শল্য-যুধিষ্ঠিরের যুদ্ধ২৫, ঘটোৎকচ-অলম্বুষের যুদ্ধ২৬, ধৃষ্টকেতু-বাহ্লীকের যুদ্ধ২৭, শিখণ্ডী-অশ্বত্থামার যুদ্ধ২৮, বিরাট-ভগদত্তের যুদ্ধ২৯ ইত্যাদি।

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি লঙ্ঘনের উদাহরণ'''

যুদ্ধের তৃতীয় দিন থেকেই যুদ্ধনীতি লঙ্ঘনের দৃশ্য চোখে পড়ে। উভয় সেনার পদাতিক যোদ্ধারা রথীদের এবং রথীরা পদাতিক যোদ্ধাদের সশস্ত্র আক্রমণ করে।৩০ গজারূঢ় সৈনিকরা পদাতিকদের এবং পদাতিক সৈনিকরা গজারূঢ় সৈনিকদের ওপর আক্রমণ করে তাদের ভূলুণ্ঠিত করে।৩১ যোগেশ্বর শ্রীকৃষ্ণ স্বয়ং এই দৃশ্য দেখে ব্যাকুল হয়ে ওঠেন এবং ভীষ্মকে বধ করার জন্য নিজের প্রতিজ্ঞাভঙ্গ করে সুদর্শন চক্র ধারণ করেন। এছাড়া অভিমন্যু বধ, মহাভারতীয় যুদ্ধনীতি লঙ্ঘনের সবচেয়ে বড়ো উদাহরণ।৩২ আচার্য দ্রোণ স্বয়ং নিয়ম লঙ্ঘন করে কুরুক্ষেত্রের যুদ্ধে মৎস্যদেশের পঞ্চাশ জন যোদ্ধা, সৃঞ্জয় বংশের ছ-হাজার সৈনিক এবং দশ হাজার হাতি ধ্বংস করেন।৩৩

'''ঘ. ৪. যথাযোগ্য প্রহার এবং তার পূর্বে বিপক্ষকে সাবধান করার নিয়ম'''

মহাভারতের যুদ্ধনীতি অনুসারে অতর্কিতে কারোর ওপর প্রহার করতে নিষেধ করা হয়েছে। নিয়মানুযায়ী প্রথমে প্রতিপক্ষকে সাবধান করতে হবে তারপর আক্রমণ করতে হবে যাতে সে আত্মরক্ষার সুযোগ পায়। প্রতিপক্ষের যোগ্যতা, ইচ্ছা তথা যুদ্ধের প্রতি তার আগ্রহ এবং তার শারীরিক সক্ষমতা অনুযায়ী তার উপযোগী অস্ত্র-শস্ত্রের প্রহার করতে হবে।৩৪

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি লঙ্ঘনের উদাহরণ'''

যুদ্ধনীতি লঙ্ঘন করে অর্জুন শিখণ্ডীকে সম্মুখে রেখে তাঁর আড়াল থেকে ভীষ্মের ওপর বাণ নিক্ষেপ করেন। অর্জুনের বাণে জর্জরিত হয়ে ভীষ্ম ধনুর্বাণ ত্যাগ করলেও অর্জুন সমানে তাঁর ওপর প্রহার করতেই থাকেন। অবশেষে ভীষ্মকে শরশয্যায় শায়িত করে অর্জুন নিরস্ত হন।৩৫

'''ঘ. ৫. নিরাশ-হতাশের ওপর প্রহার নিষিদ্ধ'''

যুদ্ধের বিভীষিকা, আহতদের চীৎকার, নির্মম হত্যা, হাতি-ঘোড়ার ছিন্ন-ভিন্ন অঙ্গ ইত্যাদি দেখে যে যোদ্ধার মনে যুদ্ধের প্রতি বিতৃষ্ণা জন্মেছে অথবা নিজের নির্মম পরিণতির কথা মনে করে যে যোদ্ধা ভীত-সন্ত্রস্ত হয়ে নিজে যে কোনো উপায়ে বাঁচার চেষ্টা করছে, তার ওপর প্রহার করা নিষিদ্ধ ছিল।৩৬

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি পালনের উদাহরণ'''

দ্রোণপর্বে দেখা যায়, ভীমের প্রবল আক্রমণে কর্ণ যখন রথের পিছনে গিয়ে লুকিয়ে পড়ে, তখন তার মধ্যে যোদ্ধাসুলভ আত্মবিশ্বাসের অভাব দেখে ভীমসেন তাকে পুনরায় নিজেকে সামলে নেওয়ার সুযোগ দেন।৩৭

'''ঘ. ৬. যুদ্ধবিমুখ যোদ্ধার ওপর প্রহার নিষিদ্ধ'''

কোনো যোদ্ধার পিঠে প্রহার করা যাবে না। যদি কেউ প্রাণরক্ষার জন্য পালাতে চায়, তাহলে তাকে হত্যা করা যাবে না। কাপুরুষের ওপরও প্রহার যাবে না।৩৮

'''ঘ. ৭. তৃতীয় কোনো যোদ্ধার হস্তক্ষেপ নিষিদ্ধ'''

দুই যোদ্ধা যখন যুদ্ধ করবে, তখন তৃতীয় কোনো যোদ্ধা সেখানে হস্তক্ষেপ করবে না। যুযুধান যোদ্ধারা নিজেদের শক্তি এবং সামর্থ্য অনুযায়ী পরস্পরের ওপর আক্রমণ করবে।৩৯

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি পালনের উদাহরণ'''

অর্জুন-কর্ণের যুদ্ধে একসময় অশ্বসেন নামে একটি সর্প কর্ণকে বলে যে, তাকে যেন কর্ণ বাণের মতো অর্জুনের দিকে নিক্ষেপ করে। যাতে সেই সর্প, অর্জুনকে দংশন করে হত্যা করতে পারে। কারণ অর্জুন, কর্ণের যেমন শত্রু তেমনই সেই অশ্বসেন নামক সর্পেরও শত্রু। কিন্তু কর্ণ, সর্পের প্রস্তাবে রাজি হননি এবং অর্জুনের ওপর সর্পাঘাত করেননি।৪০

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি লঙ্ঘনের উদাহরণ'''

ভীষ্মপর্বে দেখা যায় যে, অভিমন্যু যখন দুর্যোধনের পুত্র লক্ষ্মণের সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করতে উদ্যত হন তখন লক্ষ্মণকে রক্ষা করার জন্য দুর্যোধন ছুটে আসেন। বিপক্ষ থেকে অর্জুনও ছুটে আসেন অভিমন্যুকে রক্ষা করার জন্য। অর্জুনকে আসতে দেখে কৌরবপক্ষ থেকে ভীষ্ম, দ্রোণ আদি সকলেই অর্জুনকে আক্রমণ করার জন্য উদ্যত হন।৪১ পিতামহ ভীষ্মকে রক্ষা করার জন্য কৌরব-সেনার দশ জন মহারথী একা ভীমসেনকে যুদ্ধক্ষেত্রে ঘিরে ফেলেন এবং আক্রমণ করেন। এই দশজনের মধ্যে ছিলেন – ভগদত্ত, কৃপাচার্য, শল্য, কৃতবর্মা, বিন্দ, অনুবিন্দ, জয়দ্রথ, চিত্রসেন, বিকর্ণ এবং দুর্মর্ষণ।৪২

'''ঘ. ৮. শত্রুকে শেষ বারের মতো সাবধান করে দেওয়া '''

বিপক্ষের যোদ্ধার প্রাণনাশ করার আগে তাকে শেষ বারের মতো সাবধান করতে হবে, যাতে সে নিজের প্রাণরক্ষার শেষ চেষ্টা করতে পারে অথবা যুদ্ধক্ষেত্রে ছেড়ে পালিয়ে যেতে পারে।

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি পালনের উদাহরণ'''

চক্রব্যূহে প্রবেশ করার পর অভিমন্যুর সঙ্গে দুর্যোধনের পুত্র লক্ষ্মণের যুদ্ধ হয়। এই যুদ্ধে অভিমন্যুর হাতে লক্ষ্মণ পরাজিত এবং নিহত হন। দুর্যোধনের পুত্র লক্ষ্মণকে বধ করার আগে অভিমন্যু তাকে সাবধান করেন।৪৩

'''ঘ.''' '''৯. শরণাগতের প্রতি বাৎসল্য'''

যদি কোনো যোদ্ধা অস্ত্র-শস্ত্র ফেলে দিয়ে শরণাগত হয়, তাহলে তাকে সর্বতোভাবে রক্ষা করতে হবে।৪৪

'''ঘ. ১০. নিরস্ত্রের ওপর প্রহার নিষিদ্ধ'''

যে যোদ্ধার কাছে কোনো অস্ত্র থাকবে না অথবা যে যোদ্ধার রক্ষাকবচ ছিন্নভিন্ন হয়ে যাবে, তার ওপর প্রহার করা যাবে না। তার হাতে পুনরায় অস্ত্র তুলে দিয়ে তবে তার সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করতে হবে।৪৫

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি পালনের উদাহরণ'''

কর্ণপর্বে দেখা যায়, যুধিষ্ঠিরের মহাশক্তির আঘাতে দুর্যোধনের কবচ ছিন্ন হয়ে গেলে দুর্যোধন জ্ঞান হারান। এই অবস্থায় যুধিষ্ঠির কিন্তু তাঁকে আঘাত করেননি। পরে কৃতবর্মা, দুর্যোধনকে সুরক্ষিত স্থানে নিয়ে যান। একইভাবে কুরুপক্ষের সেনাপতি হওয়ার পর কর্ণ একসময় যুধিষ্ঠিরের মুখোমুখি হন এবং যুধিষ্ঠিরকে নিরস্ত্র করেন। এই অবস্থায় যুধিষ্ঠির পরাজিত হন এবং যুদ্ধ পালিয়ে যাওয়ার চেষ্টা করেন। তখন তাঁর সেই বিমর্ষভাব বুঝতে পেরে কর্ণ তাঁকে আর প্রহার করেননি।৪৬ সেনাপতি হওয়ার পর কর্ণের সঙ্গে ভীমসেনেরও যুদ্ধ হয়। এই যুদ্ধে ভীমের নিক্ষিপ্ত বাণের আঘাতে কর্ণ রক্তবমি করতে করতে অচেতন হয়ে পড়েন। এই অবস্থায় শল্য ভীমকে অনেক বুঝিয়ে নিরস্ত করেন, ফলে ভীম আর কর্ণের ওপর প্রহার করেননি।৪৭ অর্জুনও অশ্বত্থামাকে অচেতন অবস্থায় প্রহার করেননি।

'''m মহাভারতে এই নীতি লঙ্ঘনের উদাহরণ'''

সাত্যকীর হাতে ভূরিশ্রবা বধ৪৮; ধৃষ্টদ্যুম্নের হাতে দ্রোণাচার্য বধ৪৯; অর্জুনের হাতে কর্ণবধ৫০; ভীমের হাতে দুর্যোধন বধ।৫১

'''ঘ. ১১. যুদ্ধের সহায়কগণের প্রতি প্রহার নিষিদ্ধ'''

যারা যোদ্ধাদের সাহায্য করবে, যেমন – ঘোড়ার দেখাশুনো করা, বোঝা বহন করা, অস্ত্রশস্ত্র পৌঁছে দেওয়া, যুদ্ধের বাদ্য বাজানো – এইসব যুধ-সহায়কদের ওপর প্রহার করা যাবে না। খাদ্য সরবরাহকারীরাও এই শ্রেণির অন্তর্ভুক্ত।৫২

এছাড়াও আরও কিছু নিয়ম নির্ধারণ করা হয়েছিল যেমন – সাধারণ সেনাবাহিনীর ওপর দিব্যাস্ত্র বা মন্ত্রাস্ত্রের প্রয়োগ করা যাবে না। যোদ্ধার রথ বা বাহন যদি নষ্ট হয়ে যায়, তাহলে তার ওপর আক্রমণ করা যাবে না। এমন যোদ্ধাকে হয় প্রাণ বাঁচিয়ে পালিয়ে যেতে দিতে হবে অথবা তার সমকক্ষ হয়ে তার সঙ্গে যুদ্ধ করতে হবে। এইভাবেই উভয়পক্ষের সম্মতিক্রমে মহাভারতের যুদ্ধনীতি নির্ধারণ করা হয়। এই যুদ্ধনীতিগুলি সমকালীন পরিপ্রেক্ষিতে ভারতবর্ষের রাজতন্ত্র এবং রাজন্যবর্গের নৈতিকতাকে প্রতিফলিত করে। তাই বলা যেতে পারে, বর্তমান সময়ে দাঁড়িয়ে মহাভারত-কালীন ভারতবর্ষের ইতিহাস বিশ্লেষণ করার ক্ষেত্রে ভারত-যুদ্ধের নীতিগুলি যথেষ্ট গুরুত্বপূর্ণ।

'''তথ্যসূত্র'''

১. ''ধর্মক্ষেত্রে কুরুক্ষেত্রে সমবেতা যুযুৎসবঃ।''

''মামকাঃ পাণ্ডবাশ্চৈব কিমকুর্বত সঞ্জয়।।১'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ২৫)।

২. ''চাতুর্বণ্য ময়া সৃষ্টং গুণকর্মবিভাগশঃ।''

''তস্য কর্তারমপি মাং বিদ্ধ্যকর্তারমব্যয়ম্‌।।১৩'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ২৮)

৩. ''স্বধর্মমপি চাবেক্ষ্য ন বিকম্পিতুমর্হসি।''

''ধর্ম্যাদ্ধি যুদ্ধাচ্ছ্রেয়োঽন্যৎ ক্ষত্রিয়স্য ন বিদ্যতে।।৩১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ২৬)

৪. ''অধর্ম্মঃ ক্ষত্রিয়স্যৈষ যদ্ব্যাধিমরণং গৃহে।''

''যদয়োনিধনং যাতি সোঽস্য ধর্ম্মঃ সনাতনঃ।।১১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ১৭)

৫. ''ত্যক্ত্বা সর্ব্বমধর্ম্মঞ্চ লোভঞ্চোদ্যমমাস্থিতাঃ।''

''যুধ্যধ্বমনহঙ্কারা যতো ধর্ম্মস্ততো জয়ঃ।।১১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ২১)

৬. ''অধর্মেণৈধতে তাবত্ততো ভদ্রাণি পশ্যতি।''

''ততঃ সপত্নাঞ্জয়তি সমূলস্তু বিনশ্যতি।।১৭৪'' (মনুসংহিতা, অধ্যায় – ৪)।

৭. ''আমুঞ্চ কবচং বীর মূর্ধজান্যময়স্ব চ।''

''যচ্চান্যদপি তে নাস্তি তদপ্যাদৎস্ব ভারত।।৬০'' (শল্যপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ৩২)

৮. ''বলেন বিজিতো যশ্চ নতং যুধ্যত ভূমিপঃ।''

''সংবৎসরং বিপ্রণোয়েৎ তস্মাজ্জাতঃ পুনর্ভবেৎ।।৪'' (শান্তিপর্ব, – ৯৩)।

৯. ''ততস্তে সময়ং চক্রুঃ কুরুপাণ্ডবসোমকাঃ।''

''ধর্ম্মান্‌ সংস্থাপয়ামাসুর্যুদ্ধানাং ভরতর্ষভ।।২৬'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ১)

১০. ''তন্তু তেনাভ্যুপায়েন গময়িত্বা যমক্ষয়ম্‌।''

''অধ্যতিষ্ঠত তজস্বী রথং প্রাপ্য সুদর্শনম্‌।।২৪'' (সৌপ্তিক পর্ব, অধ্যায় – ৯)

১১. ''তমপ্যাক্রম্য পাদেন কণ্ঠে চোরসি তেজসা।''

''তথৈব মারয়ামাস বিনর্দ্দন্তমরিন্দমম্‌।।৩৩'' (তদেব)

এবং

''তমভিদ্রুত জগ্রাহ ক্ষিতৌ চৈনমতাড়য়ৎ।''

''বিস্ফুরন্তঞ্চ পশুবত্তথৈবৈনমমারয়ৎ।।৩৫'' (তদেব)

১২. দ্রৌপদীর পাঁচ সন্তান যথাক্রমে - প্রতিবিন্ধ্য (যুধিষ্ঠির-পুত্র), সুতসোম (ভীম-পুত্র), শ্রুতকর্মা (অর্জুন-পুত্র), শতানীক (নকুল-পুত্র) এবং শ্রুতসেন (সহদেব-পুত্র)। সৌপ্তিকপর্বের ৯ম অধ্যায়ের অন্তর্গত শ্লোকসংখ্যা ৫০ – ৫৮ পর্যন্ত, অশ্বত্থামার হাতে কীভাবে দ্রৌপদীর পঞ্চপুত্র নিহত হন, তার বর্ণনা করা হয়েছে। যথা –

''ততঃ সো নরশার্দ্দুল ! প্রতিবিন্ধ্য মহাহবে।''

''কুক্ষিদেশেঽবধীদ্রাজন্‌ ! সো হতো ন্যপতদ্ভুবি।।৫০''

''প্রসেন বিদ্ধা দ্রৌণিন্তু সুতসোমঃ প্রতাপবান্‌।''

''পুনশ্চাসিং সমুদ্যম্য দ্রোণপুত্রমুপাদ্রবং।।৫১''

''সুতসোমস্য সাসিং তং বাহুং ছিত্ত্বা নরর্ষভ।''

''পুনরপ্যাহনৎ পার্শ্বে সো ভিন্নহৃদয়োঽপতৎ।।৫২''

''নাকুলিস্তু শতানীকো রথচক্রেণ বীর্য্যবান্‌।''

''দোর্ভ্যামুৎক্ষিপ্য বেগেন বক্ষস্যেনমতাড়য়ত।।৫৩''

''অতাড়য়চ্ছতানীকং মুক্তচক্রং দ্বিজস্তু সঃ।''

''স বিহ্বল যযৌ ভূমিং ততোঽস্যাপাহরচ্ছিরঃ।।৫৪''

''শ্রুতকর্ম্মা তু পরিঘং গৃহীত্বা সমতাড়য়ৎ।''

''অভিদ্রুত্য যযৌ দ্রৌণিং সব্যে সফলকে ভৃশম্‌।।৫৫''

''স তু তং শ্রুতকর্ম্মাণমাস্যে জঘ্নে বরাসিনা।''

''সো হতো ন্যপতদ্ভূমৌ বিমূঢ়ো বিকৃতাননঃ।।৫৬''

''তেন শব্দেন বীরস্তু শ্রুতকীর্ত্তির্মহারথঃ।''

''অশ্বত্থামানমাসাদ্য শরবর্ষৈরবাকিরত।।৫৭''

''তস্যাপি শরবর্ষাণি চর্ম্মণা প্রতিবার্য্য সঃ।''

''সকুণ্ডলং শিরঃকায়াদ্‌ভ্রাজমানমপাহরত।।৫৮''

১৩. ''ততঃ পরমমস্ত্রন্তু দ্রৌণিরুদ্যতমাহবে।''

''দ্বৈপায়নবচঃ শ্রুত্বা গর্ভেষু প্রমুমোচ হ।।৩৪'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ১৬)

১৪. ''নামুচ্যত তয়োঃ কশ্চিৎ নিষ্ক্রান্তঃ শিবিরাদ্বহিঃ।''

''কৃপস্য চ মহারাজ ! হার্দ্দিক্যস্য চ দুর্ম্মতেঃ।। ১০৩''

''ভূয়শ্চৈব চিকীর্ষন্তৌ দ্রোণপুত্রস্য তৌ প্রিয়ম্‌।''

''ত্রিষু দেশেষু দদতুঃ শিবিরস্য হুতাশনম্‌।। ১০৪'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ৯)

১৫. ''নিবৃত্তে বিহিতে যুদ্ধে স্যাৎ প্রীতির্নঃ পরস্পরম্‌।''

''যথা পুরা যথাযোগং ন তৎ স্যাচ্ছলনং স্ম নঃ।। ২৭'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় -১)

১৬. ''যুদ্ধে প্রবৃত্তে নো বাচৈব প্রতিযোধনম্‌।''

''নিষ্ক্রান্তাঃ পৃতনামধ্যান্ন হন্তব্যাঃ কদাচন।। ২৮'' (তদেব)

১৭. তদেব।

১৮. ''রথী চ রথিনা যোধ্যা গজেন গজধূর্গতঃ।''

''অশ্বেনাশ্বী পদাতিশ্চ পাদাতেনৈব ভারত।।২৯'' (তদেব)

১৯. তদেব।

২০. তদেব।

২১. তদেব।

২২. ''তাবুভৌ কুরুশার্দ্দূলৌ পরস্পরবধৈষিণৌ।''

''গাঙ্গেয়স্তু বণে পার্থং বিদ্ধা নাকম্পযদ্বলী।।১০'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ৪৫)

২৩. ''তয়োঃ সমভবদ্‌যুদ্ধং তুমুলং রোমহর্ষণম্‌।''

''সাত্যকিঃ কৃতবর্ম্মাণং কৃতবর্ম্মা চ সাত্যকিম্‌।।১২'' (তদেব)

২৪. ''ভীমসেনস্তব সুতং দুর্য্যোধনমযোধযৎ।''

''তাবুভৌ নবশার্দ্দূলৌ কুরুমুখ্যৌ মহাবলৌ।।১৯'' (তদেব)

২৫.''যুধিষ্ঠিরঃ স্বয়ং রাজা মদ্ররাজানমভ্যযাৎ।''

''তস্য মদ্রাধিপশ্চাপং দ্বিধা চিচ্ছেদ মারিষ।।২৮'' (তদেব)

২৬. ''রাক্ষসং ক্রূরকর্ম্মাণং ক্রূরকর্ম্মা ঘটোৎকচঃ।''

''অলম্বুষং প্রত্যুদিযাদ্বলং শত্রু ইরাহবে।।৪২'' (তদেব)

২৭. ''বাহ্লীকন্তু রণে ক্রুদ্ধং ক্রুদ্ধরূপো বিশাংপতে।''

''অভ্যদ্রবদমেযাত্মা ধৃষ্টকেতুর্মহারথঃ।।৩৮'' (তদেব)

২৮. ''শিখণ্ডী সমরে রাজন্‌ দ্রৌণিমভ্যুদ্‌যযৌ বলী।''

''অশ্বত্থামা ততঃ ক্রুদ্ধঃ শিখণ্ডীনমুপস্থিতম্‌।।৪৬'' (তদেব)

২৯. ''ভগদত্তং রণে শূরং বিরাটো বাহিনীপতিঃ।''

''অভ্যযাত্ত্ববিতো রাজংস্ততো যুদ্ধমবর্ত্তত।।৪৯'' (তদেব)

৩০. ''পদাতী রথিনঞ্চৈব রথী চাপি পদাতিনম্‌। ''

''ন্যপাতয়চ্ছিতৈঃ শস্ত্রৈঃ সেনয়োরুভয়োবপি।।২০'' (তদেব)

৩১. ''গজারোহা হয়ারোহান্‌ পাতয়াঞ্চক্রিরে তদা।''

''হয়ারোহা গজস্থাংশ্চ তদদ্ভুতমিবাভবৎ।।২১''

''গজারোহবরৈশ্চাপি তত্র তত্র পদাতয়ঃ।''

''পাতিতাঃ সমদৃশ্যন্ত তৈশ্চাপি গজযোধিনঃ।।২২'' (তদেব)

৩২. ''বিচেতা ন্যপতদ্‌ ভূমৌ সৌভদ্রঃ পরবীরহা।''

''এবং বিনিহতো রাজন্নেকো বহুভিরাহবে।।১৪'' (দ্রোণপর্ব, অধ্যায় - ৫১)

৩৩. ''পাঞ্চালানাং ততো দ্রোণোঽপ্যকরোৎ কদনং মহৎ।''

''যথা ক্রুদ্ধো রণে শক্রো দানবানাং ক্ষয়ং পুরা।।১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় - ১৬৩)

৩৪. ''যথাযোগং যথাকায়ং যথোৎসাহং যথাবলম্।''

''সমাভাষ্য প্রহর্তব্যং ন বিশ্চস্তে ন বিহ্বলে।।৩০'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ১)

৩৫. ''শিখণ্ডী তু রণে বানান্‌ যান্‌ মুমোচ মহারথঃ।''

''ন চক্রুস্তে রুজং তস্য স্বর্ণপুঙ্খাঃ শিলাশিতা।।১২'' …

''ততঃ শান্তনবো ভীষ্মো বীভৎসুং নাত্যবর্ত্তত।''

''পঞ্চবিংশত্যা ক্ষুদ্রকাণাং সমার্পয়ৎ।।৫৪''…

''পতমানে রথাদ্ভীষ্মে বভূব সুমহাস্বনঃ।''

''সংপতন্তমভিপ্রেক্ষ্য মহাত্মানং পিতামহম্‌।।৯২'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় - ১১৪)

৩৬. ''একেন সহ সংযুক্তঃ প্রপন্নো বিমুখস্তথা।''

''ক্ষীণশস্ত্রো বিবর্ম্মা চ ন হন্তব্যঃ কদাচন।।৩১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় -১)

৩৭. ''লয়মাস্থায় রাধেয়ো ভীমসেনমবঞ্চয়ৎ।''

''তং চ দৃষ্ট্বা রথোপস্থে নিলীনং ব্যথিতেন্দ্রিয়ম্‌।।৭৬''

''ধ্বজমস্য সমাসাদ্য সস্থৌ ভীমো মহীতলে।''

''দস্য কুরবঃ সর্বে চারণাশ্চাভ্যপূজয়ন্‌।।৭৭'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় - ১৩৯)

৩৮. ''একেন সহ সংযুক্তঃ প্রপন্নো বিমুখস্তথা।''

''ক্ষীণশস্ত্রো বিবর্ম্মো চ ন হন্তব্যঃ কদাচন।।৩১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় - ১)

৩৯. তদেব।

৪০. ''ন নাম কর্ণোঽদ্য রণায় বান্য-বলং সমাস্থায় জয়ং বুভূষেৎ।''

''ন সন্দধ্যাং দ্বিঃ শরং চৈব নাগ ! যদ্যররজুনানাং শতমেব হন্যাম্‌।।৪৭''

''তমাহ কর্ণঃ পুনরেব নাগং তদাজিমধ্যে রবিসূনুসত্তমঃ।''

''ব্যালাস্ত্রসর্গোত্তমযত্নমন্যুভির্হন্তাস্মি পার্থং সুমুখো ব্রজ ত্বম্‌।।৪৮''

(কর্ণপর্ব, অধ্যায় - ৬৬)

৪১. ''সৌভদ্রমথ সংযুক্ত দৃষ্ট্বা তত্র ধনঞ্জয়ঃ।''

''অভিদুদ্রাব সংক্রুদ্ধস্ত্রাতুকামঃ স্বমাত্মজম্‌।।১৭'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় - ৫৫)

৪২. ''ত্বরমাণাস্ত্বরাকালে বিরথং ষণ্মহারথাঃ।''

''শরবর্ষৈরকরুণা বালমেকমবাকিরন্‌।।৫৭'' (দ্রোণপর্ব, অধ্যায় - ৪২)

৪৩. ''সুদৃষ্টঃ ক্রিয়তাং লোকো হ্যমুং লোকং গমিষ্যসি।''

''পশ্যতাং বান্ধবানাং ত্বাং নয়ামি যমসাদনম্‌।।১৫'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ৪১)

৪৪. ''সহ সংযুক্তঃ প্রপন্নো বিমুখস্তথা।''

''ক্ষীণশস্ত্রো বিবর্ম্মো চ ন হন্তব্যঃ কদাচন।।৩১'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় - ১)

৪৫. তদেব।

৪৬. ''ন ভবান্‌ ক্ষত্রধর্ম্মেষু কুশলো হীতি মে মতিঃ।''

''ব্রাহ্মে বলে ভবান্‌ যুক্তঃ স্বাধ্যায়ে যজ্ঞকর্ম্মণি।।৫০''

''মাস্ম যুধ্যস্ব কৌন্তেয় ! মাস্ম বীরান্‌ সমাসদঃ।''

''মা চৈনানপ্রিয়ং ব্রুহি মা বৈ ব্রজ মহারণম্‌।।৫১'' (কর্ণপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ৩৭)

৪৭. ''সো ভীমসেনাভিহতঃ সূতপুত্রঃ কুরূদ্বহ।''

''নিষসাদ রথোপস্থে বিসংজ্ঞঃ পৃতনাপতিঃ।।৪৭'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ৩৮)

৪৮. ''প্রয়োপবিষ্টায় রণে পার্থেন ছিন্নবাহবে।''

''সাত্যকিঃ কৌরবেয়ায় খড়্গেনাপাহরচ্ছিরঃ।।৩৭'' (দ্রোণপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ১২৪)

৪৯. ''তস্য মূর্দ্ধানমালম্ব্য গতসত্ত্বস্য দেহিনঃ।''

''কিঞ্চিদব্রুবতঃ কায়াদ্বিচকর্ত্তাসিনা শিরঃ।।৮৫'' (তদেব, অধ্যায় – ১৬৪)

৫০. ''সৈন্যান্যনেকানি চ বিপ্রমোহ্য গাণ্ডীবমুক্তেন ততো মহাত্মা।''

''তেনার্জ্জুনস্তন্মহনীয়মস্য শিরোঽহরৎ সূতপুত্রস্য রাজন্‌।।১৫৯'' (কর্ণপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ৬৬)

৫১. ''সা বজ্রনিষ্পেষসমা প্রহিতা ভীমকর্ম্মণা।''

''ঊরূ দুর্য্যোধনস্যাথ বভঞ্জ প্রিয়দর্শনৌ।।৪৭'' (শল্যপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ৫৪)

৫২. ''ন সূতেষু ন ধুর্য্যেষু ন চ শস্ত্রোপনায়িষু।''

''ন ভেরীশঙ্খবাদেষু প্রহর্ত্তব্যং কথঞ্চন।।৩২'' (ভীষ্মপর্ব, অধ্যায় – ১)

'''সহায়ক গ্রন্থ'''

১. ড. সুরেন্দ্রকুমার (সম্পা.), ''মনুস্মৃতি (হিন্দি)'', আর্ষ সাহিত্য প্রচার ট্রাষ্ট, দিল্লি, ২০০৫।

২. শ্রীমদ হরিদাস সিদ্ধান্তবাগীশ ভট্টাচার্য (অনু.), ''মহাভারতম্‌'', বিশ্ববাণী প্রকাশনী, কলকাতা, ১৩৬৬ বঙ্গাব্দ।

৩. পণ্ডিত গঙ্গাপ্রসাদ শাস্ত্রী (অনু.), ''শুক্রনীতি (মূল সংস্কৃত এবং হিন্দি অনুবাদ)'', হিন্দু জগৎ কার্যালয়, মুজফ্‌ফর নগর, উত্তর প্রদেশ, ১৬৬৮ বিক্রমাব্দ।

৪. ড. রাধাগোবিন্দ বসাক (অনু.), ''কৌটিল্য অর্থশাস্ত্র (১, ২)'', জেনারেল প্রিন্টার্স অ্যান্ড পাবলিশার্স প্রাইভেট লিমিটেড, কলকাতা, ১৯৫০।

Authored by '''নিত্যানন্দ খাঁ'''

Published by.[[Category:Social Sciences]][[Category:Social Sciences]]

Kalaripayattu

2026-05-15T06:20:41Z

Neeraja:

Kalaripayaṭṭu is an ancient martial art that originated in India and, a part of the enormous corpus of India’s cultural traditions. Like Yoga, it is a complete discipline that combines physical and mental training, self-discipline, with the art of body massage and traditional Āyurvaidika medicine. Phillip Zarrilli describes kalari as a ”mode of cultural praxis through which bodies, knowledges, powers, agency and selves/identities have been and are repositioned through practice.”

==== Origins of Kalaripayaṭṭu ====
Paraśurāma, the warrior incarnation of Viṣṇu, is said to have thrown his paraśu or battle-axe out into the sea from Gokarṇa to Kanyakumari, on the coast of Mangalore. As the axe sank, a strip of land rose up out of the waters, that became Kerala, also called Paraśurāmakṣetram or Bhārgavakṣetram. After pulling Kerala out of the ocean, Paraśurāma taught the martial art to 21 disciples so that they may maintain peace in the land. There exist palm leaf manuscripts in the possession of ancient families that have learnt and preserved Kalaripayaṭṭu for generations that attest to the fact that Paraśurāma was their first guru. The word kalari presumably comes from the Sanskrit term khalūrikā, which refers to a military training ground, or possibly from the Tamil word kalam meaning ‘arena or area for drama, gladiatorial, or gymnastic exhibitions’, and the root of the Malayalam ‘payattu’ is Tamil payil, ‘to train or practise’. Ancient palm leaf manuscripts often specify the size, placement and orientation of the kalari. References to many of the sword and shield techniques, archery, weaponry etc. employed by Kalaripayaṭṭu are found in texts such as the Agni Purāṇa and the Nāṭya Śāstra from circa 14th century.

Kalaripayaṭṭu styles that were practiced in the old Travancore region of Southern Kerala and the adjacent districts of Kanyakumari were also continued to be practiced by non-Nair castes such as the Nadars and Sambavars. The Southern styles decidedly purport a more Tamil origin, and differ from Northern ones — they trace their foundations to Sage Agastya rather than Paraśurāma, practice in open spaces than in special roofed pits, and their masters are known as asans. They also incorporate more of the “vital spots” techniques, called varma ati or chinna ati, tracing the tradition to the 108 vital spots identified by Sage Agastya in his text Varma Oti Murivu Cara Cuttiram and Agastyamuni’s student Bhogar’s Varmaśāstram, written in Tamil. The medicinal treatment that is linked with is identified as Dravidian Siddha medicine rather than Āyurveda. A considerable mixing of styles and arts has occurred in the past few decades, and a number of masters frequently mix both southern and northern techniques.

==== Transmission through Guru-Śiṣya Paramparā ====
Student instruction begins at the age of eight with a ritual initiation ceremony conducted at the gurukula by the master of the kalari, called the Gurukkal. The Gurukkal is venerated as the living representative of the Gods in the entire lineage of gurus in the kalari tradition, starting with Paraśurāma. While the number of Gods varies depending on the tradition of the family and of the Gurukkal, the kalari falls under the protection of its guardian deity Bhagvatī, the Goddess Durgā; or Bhadrakāḷi, or Paradevathai, identified as a blend of Śiva and Śakti.

Practicing the martial art, especially at advanced levels with combat weapons was an exclusive right granted to certain sections of society that were specifically designated to serve the ruler with utmost loyalty. From the 11th-12th century, this right and duty was the exclusive right and domain of the Nairs, however, a few Brahmin sub-castes as well as a few others, such as one subgroup of the Illavas called the Tiyyas along with some Christians and Muslims were conferred this right and duty of training in arms and to fight duels to the death.

==== The Nairs ====
The Nairs are a warrior class indigenous to Kerala, whose military accomplishments brought them great privilege, fame and standing in society. They roamed about armed with a dagger and sword that never left their side, following a rigorous disciplined life; they fought on foot and were skilled in archery and the use of a spear. Young Nair boys and even girls would train from an early age in military knowledge, and the art of Kalari was important as the code of conduct and honor. Early medieval Kerala was made of a number of smaller kingdoms, and each was equipped with several thousand Nair warriors. Kalaripayaṭṭu, therefore, was not only central to the heritage of the Nair caste but even integral to the fabric of society, being widely known and practised.

Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese writer from the 16th century, described the life of a Nair, their dedication to the craft and their relationships with their Gurukkal and their sworn loyalty to their king.<blockquote>“For the Nair, combat is a personal affair. Even though there may be a thousand men engaged in a battle, the Nair will avenge his king. He advances alone to meet his opponents, strong in his own science of combat, confident in his own ability to handle his weapons. The Nair are agile and highly skilled, fearless and disdainful of pain.”</blockquote>

==== Principles of Kalaripayaṭṭu ====
The art and tradition has, through its rigor and moral rectitude, maintained a pristine purity of thought, transmission of tradition and philosophy for centuries. Kalaripayaṭṭu is a living testimony of the code of conduct and sense of honor for the warrior practitioners.. In fact, it was their belief that once a sword was drawn, it must not be put back without being stained in blood. Its ten principles, rooted in its motto ‘nitya thozhil abhyāsam’ or ‘practice makes perfection’, which are cultivated in its practitioners, have been enumerated by the masters of Kalaripayaṭṭu as follows:

# Acadakkam — discipline
# Gurutvam — respect for the Guru
# Krithyaniṣṭha — regularity in ones practice
# Śaktiyulla śarīram manasu — strength of body and mind
# Kṣama — patience
# Vinayam — humility
# Manusvatvam — humanity
# Pāramparya Bahumānam — respect for tradition
# Ātmābhimānam, Dhīratā — self-esteem and courage
# Śānti — peace

The dark walls of the kalari, the scent of burning myrrh, the chanting of mantras and the ritual and spiritual atmosphere that is created play an important role in the formation of the character and the attitude of the student towards life. Kalari, therefore, is not a practice reducible to its set of “virtuosic body-techniques”; but rather, exists as a “set of potentialities of self, power, and agency inherent in che complex set of practices, discourses and representations through which a practitioner’s experience of practice is historically and contextually negotiated”. (Zarrilli, 1998)

==== Meditation and Spiritual Practice ====
India’s martial arts developed within a highly philosophical and religious setting, and are therefore closely linked with such beliefs. Cultivating ekāgratā, the ideal phycological, physical and respiratory state of the ideal martial arts practitioner is said to take place when the “whole body becomes an eye” — meyya kannakuka — alluding to the concept of intuitive development of the mental state of ekāgratā or the sole focus of concentration (such as that exhibited by Arjuna in the Mahābhārata), with which an adept warrior is able to sense his entire environment at all times. Cultivating ekāgratā means to cultivate one’s deeper nature, and their recognition of their sense of self. As stated in the Agni Purāṇa, “He who has steadied his eye’s vision — both mental and physical — can vanquish even Yama, the god of death; vanquishing Yama means first of all vanquishing oneself.” The development of this advanced mental state along with physical hyper-awareness and sensibility is achieved only through continuous and disciplined practice of yoga, meditation, and prāṇāyāma, and not simply engaging with the art on a purely physical plane. The nature of the breath, and the ability to control breathing is linked with the quality of life, and with longevity. As Philip Zarrilli puts it,<blockquote>“the practitioner’s ‘self’ is reconstituted through long-term practice to achieve agency, power and a type of behaviour which can be deployed personally, socially, even cosmologically.”</blockquote>

==== Mudra and Mantra ====
The use of mudras to evoke certain stances and states of mind while on the battlefield are seen in the practice of Kalaripayaṭṭu. The Nairs would combine the use of mudras with the chanting of certain mantras, while mentally concentrating on a particular nerve plexus or a psychic centre to produce what can only be called mystical or superhuman effects. The capacity to do this is cultivated through a meditative practice over years and even decades.

==== Kalaripayaṭṭu and Āyurveda ====
The blend of martial arts with medicine is a unique trait of Kalaripayaṭṭu. The Gurukkal is trained in a special form of treatment, called kalaricikitsa, based in Āyurveda and perfected through being passed on through generations of Gurukkals. The Gurukkals specialize in the treatment of orthopaedic and nervous disorders, and in the preparations of herbs and medicines. In India, Āyurvaidika treatment takes into account astrological considerations, invocations of the Gods, along with physical medications. It is a system that is not solely based in empiricism, but rather, intimately connected with the metaphysical, cosmological, and philosophical foundations of the civilization itself. A human being is considered as a whole, his mind, body and spirit seen inseparable and therefore treated as one. All prescriptions regarding nutrition, food habits, methods of cleansing and purifying the body, control of respiration and the heart rate — prāṇāyama, yogāsanas are drawn from Āyurveda, Yoga sūtras and even haṭha yoga texts.

==== The Art of Massage ====
Kalaripayaṭṭu has its own unique system of massage using the feet, called Uzhichil. The masseuse holds ropes attached to the ceiling and uses them to control the pressure of his feet on the body of the person stretched out on the floor beneath. This method is used for the more agile athletes, and those that are frailer such as children, women and the elderly are subject to massage using the hands. The depth and strength of the massage are tailored based on the fighter’s needs. The practitioner is expected to follow certain lifestyle restrictions while undergoing massage treatments: rest, a bland diet, sexual abstinence and staying away from cold and heat. The art of massage (and combat) is also linked with the ancient Āyurvaidika knowledge of pressure points, or marman as pointed out by Suśruta in his treatise, Marma Sūtras.

==== Kalaripayaṭṭu as a Complex System ====
Kalaripayaṭṭu can be imagined as a complex, tiered system in which all of its arenas of operation do not occur in isolation, but are rather, interlinked to form an entire institution in itself. The four arenas, according to Zarrilli are:

# the literal arena: including the kalari itself where training takes place;
# the social arena: including the Saṅgham (the governing body which oversees the running of the kalari), the common lineage or style of practice to which the kalari belongs, and formal associations;
# the arenas of cultural production: which generate representations of the martial arts; including in media, traditional cultural performances during including calendrical or seasonal festivals — where the contribution of kalari to arts such as Kathakali or Velakali, the transposition of Kalaripayaṭṭu into dance forms, is brought to the fore;
# the arena of experience and self-transformation: the crucible of the individual’s experience where embodied practice helps shape a self, as well as creates an own style and interpretation of the body-in-practice.

==== Decline and Resurrection ====
At the end of the 17th century Kalaripayaṭṭu was declared illegal by the British, and remained banned till India’s independence in 1947, due to an encounter of a British Captain with a kalari warrior, and his subsequent, presumably embarrassing, defeat. It remained alive only through the dogged and secret transmission of its practice and traditions by its masters. The investment of such an extraordinary amount of time, energy, and resources by a society in order to preserve this system that aimed to create cultural specialists of such embodied practices speaks to the true importance of the personal, social, ritual and/or cosmological realities that are created, enacted and perpetuated. (Zarrilli, 1998)

Kalaripayaṭṭu is an inextricable part of Kerala’s cultural and mytho-historical landscape, as a rich and vibrant part of Kerala’s, and by extension, India’s, cultural, spiritual, and educational heritage. Kalaripayaṭṭu is regarded as the fount of martial arts across Asia, as the oldest of the extant ones, which influenced other martial traditions of China and Japan. It is time that Kalaripayaṭṭu is given the recognition it deserves on a global scale, the same attention that others such as karate, kung fu, judo, tai chi etc. have received, given its “elder brotherly” status to all Asian martial arts. Kalaripayaṭṭu almost fell into oblivion, but is now being revived and is going through a renaissance thanks to widespread interest and the efforts of a few masters.

Kalaripayaṭṭu must be elevated, both as a traditional psychophysiological discipline and a ‘scientific’ system of physical culture, whose practice cultivates untold mental, physical and spiritual benefits — and not just as a fighting skill with practical benefits. In the coming decades, one of the agendas within Indic revivalism must be to exalt Kalari to the status it deserves, as an art, science, and a marker of the fierce martial tradition — a form of kṣatriyatā that formerly pervaded the Indian soil and would be indispensable to our civilisation once again in this age.

==== Endnotes: ====

# Zarrilli, P. B. (1998). When the body becomes all eyes: paradigms, discourses, and practices of power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian martial art. India: Oxford University Press.
# Denaud, P. (2009). Kalaripayat: The Martial Arts Tradition of India. United States: Inner Traditions/Bear.

Authored by Sai Priya Chodavarapu.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Health and Wellness Sciences]][[Category:Health and Wellness Sciences]]

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-30T06:24:30Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)'''|center]]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).
[[File:Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar.jpg|thumb|Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar (Source: '''indiaclimatedialogue.net/)'''|center]]

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

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Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

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Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

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Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

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Authored by .
Published by,[[Category:Science and Technology]]

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-30T06:24:24Z

Neeraja:

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-30T06:23:58Z

Neeraja:

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-30T06:23:04Z

Neeraja:

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-30T06:22:07Z

Neeraja:

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:43:08Z

Neeraja:

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:42:29Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)'''|center]]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).
[[File:Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar.jpg|thumb|Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar (Source: '''indiaclimatedialogue.net/)''']]

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

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Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

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Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

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Authored by .
Published by,

File:Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar.jpg

2024-08-28T07:41:04Z

Neeraja:

Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:37:02Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)'''|center]]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

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Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

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Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

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Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

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Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:28:45Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)'''|center]]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:28:08Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)'''|center]]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:26:53Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:SANDRP.jpg|thumb|Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi (Source: '''SANDRP)''']]

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

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Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

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Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

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Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

File:SANDRP.jpg

2024-08-28T07:24:11Z

Neeraja:

Patodi Johad Narela, North Delhi.

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:20:00Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)|center]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

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Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:19:25Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:Gettyimages.in.jpg|thumb|Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)]]

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

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Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

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Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

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Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

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Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

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Authored by .
Published by,

File:Gettyimages.in.jpg

2024-08-28T07:16:40Z

Neeraja:

Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:10:41Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)|center]]
Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:10:10Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
[[File:India Water Portal.jpg|thumb|Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)]]
Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
|
|-
|
|
|}
Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

File:India Water Portal.jpg

2024-08-28T07:06:34Z

Neeraja:

Houses with Tankas

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:01:26Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T07:00:23Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)|center|upright=0.35]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T06:57:20Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

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Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T06:55:31Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb|alt=Source: Rajsthan Tourism|Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan]]

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

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Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T06:54:04Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).
[[File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg|thumb]]

Image 1. Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan

Source: '''Rajasthan Tourism'''

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

Smith, J. (2021). ''The Role of Natural Resources in Ancient Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/resources-ancient-civilizations</nowiki>

SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

Thakur, V., & Thakur, R. (2021). Reviving traditional water management practices in India. ''Water Policy, 23''(2), 389-402. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.264</nowiki>

Authored by .
Published by,

File:Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan.jpg

2024-08-28T06:52:23Z

Neeraja:

Source:Rajasthan Tourism

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T06:48:47Z

Neeraja:

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).

Image 1. Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan

Source: '''Rajasthan Tourism'''

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
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Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

Agarwal, A., & Narain, S. (1997). ''Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water Harvesting Systems''. Centre for Science and Environment.

Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

Musie, M., & Gonfa, T. (2023). The critical status of global freshwater resources. ''Water International, 48''(3), 345-357. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2023.1893962</nowiki>

Olsson, P., & Folke, C. (2001). Local ecological knowledge and institutional dynamics for ecosystem management: A study of Lake Racken watershed, Sweden. ''Ecosystems, 4''(2), 85-104. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000061</nowiki>

Olivelle, P. (2006). ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''. Oxford University Press.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, P. C. (2011). Sustainable development through traditional knowledge. Pointer Publishers.

Pareek, N., & Trivedi, R. (2011). Vermicomposting: An eco-friendly approach for recycling of organic wastes. ''International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1''(5), 742-749.

Possehl, G. L. (2002). ''The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective''. AltaMira Press.

Reddy, G. P. (2018). Traditional knowledge in water management: A study of tanks in South India. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 17''(3), 506-514.

Richards, J. F. (1993). ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press.

Sharma, P. (2020). ''Infrastructural development in Bundelkhand region: A micro-level analysis''. ''The Deccan Geographer'', ''16'', 1-15. ISSN 0011-7269. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348335402_INFRASTRUCTURAL_DEVELOPMENT_IN_BUNDELKHAND_REGION_A_MICRO-LEVELANALYSIS</nowiki>

Sharma, P. K. (2015). Regional disparities in socio-economic development in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan. ''The Deccan Geographer'', 53(2), 23-28.

Sharma, P. K., & Mishra, P. (2021). ''Geography of Rajasthan''. Pareek Publication. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-947456-8-6</nowiki>.

Sharma, P. K., Srivastava, S., & Chandauriya, M. (2022). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices for water resource management in Rajasthan, India. In S. C. Rai & P. K. Mishra (Eds.), ''Traditional ecological knowledge of resource management in Asia'' (pp. 225-244). Springer, Cham. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16840-6_9</nowiki>

Sharma, R. S. (1999). ''Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Sharma, U. (2020). Environmental sustainability: The role of Indian traditional knowledge. ''Journal of Rural Studies, 79'', 26-34. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.07.005</nowiki>

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SNS. (2022). ''Kunds and Baolis: Traditional Water Harvesting Structures''. Sustainable Network Solutions. <nowiki>https://www.sns.org.in/kunds-and-baolis-traditional-water-harvesting-structures</nowiki>

Thakur, B., & Thakur, A. (2021). ''Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge''. Springer.

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Authored by .
Published by,

Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

2024-08-28T06:48:17Z

Neeraja:

'''Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance'''

''' P.K. Sharma1 & Mahima Chandauriya2'''

'''Authors information: '''

''' P.K. Sharma1'''

1Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703</nowiki>

'''Mahima Chandauriya2'''

2Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - <nowiki>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307</nowiki>

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

'''Abstract'''

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

'''Overview'''

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

'''Paraṃpara (Lineage)'''

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

'''Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)'''

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

'''Traditional Water Management Practices in India'''

'''Kunds or Baolis'''

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).

Image 1. Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan

Source: '''Rajasthan Tourism'''

'''Tankas in Gujarat'''

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
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|}
Image 2. Houses with Tankas
Image source: India Water Portal.

'''Temple Ponds in South India'''

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
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|}
Image 3. Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi.
'''Source:'''gettyimages.in/

'''Johads'''

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Image 4. Patodi Johad'' '' Narela, North Delhi.

'''Source: SANDRP'''

'''Ahar Pyne in Bihar'''

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Image 5. Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar

'''Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/'''

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

'''Significance and Impact'''

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

'''Societal and Cultural Impact'''

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

'''Scientific and Practical Applications'''

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

'''Practical Applications in Everyday Life'''

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

'''Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being'''

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

'''Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends'''

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

'''Sanskrit shlokas'''

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

'''English Translation:''' May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

'''Source:''' Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

'''English Translation:''' The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

'''Source:''' Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

'''English Translation:''' The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

'''Explanation:''' This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

'''Source:''' Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

'''English Translation:''' From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

'''Explanation:''' This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

'''Source:''' Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

'''English Translation:''' Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

'''Explanation:''' This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

'''Source:''' Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

· Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm</nowiki>

· Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm</nowiki>

· Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm</nowiki>

· Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm</nowiki>

· Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm</nowiki>

· Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm</nowiki>

'''References'''

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Bain, M. (2017). Traditional ecological knowledge and its relevance to conservation practices. ''Journal of Environmental Management, 204'', 104-110. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.082</nowiki>

Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2003). ''Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change''. Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541957</nowiki>

Brown, L. (2019). ''Ancient Agriculture and Resource Management''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/ancient-agriculture</nowiki>

Davis, K. (2018). ''Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Sustainability in Ancient Societies''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/traditional-knowledge</nowiki>

Dayaratne, R. (2022). ''Water Management in Arid Regions: Traditional Techniques and Modern Approaches''. Palgrave Macmillan.

Gadgil, M., & Berkes, F. (1991). Traditional resource management systems. ''Resource Management and Optimization, 8''(3-4), 127-141.

Gernier, B. (1998). Community participation in water management. ''International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14''(4), 463-472. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629849229</nowiki>

Gupta, A. (2012). The Ahar-Pyne system of irrigation in South Bihar: An insight. ''Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7''(8), 676-682.

Gupta, A. (2012). Traditional water management practices in India: Historical and cultural contexts. ''Indian Journal of History of Science, 47''(3), 411-424.

Johnson, M. (2020). ''Rivers and the Rise of Early Civilizations''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.example.com/rivers-civilizations</nowiki>

Kenoyer, J. M., & Possehl, G. L. (2004). The Indus age: The beginnings. ''Journal of Asian Studies, 63''(4), 1205-1207.

Kothari, A., Pathak, N., & Vania, F. (2013). Conservation through cultural survival: Indigenous peoples and protected areas. In S. Mallon (Ed.), ''Indigenous Peoples and Conservation: From Rights to Resource Management'' (pp. 120-145). IUCN.

Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge.

Kumar, M. (2005). Rainwater harvesting and traditional knowledge. International Water Management Institute. <nowiki>https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/Rainwater_Harvesting_and_Traditional_Knowledge.pdf</nowiki>

Kumar, R. (2005). The colonial legacy of irrigation in South India. ''Economic and Political Weekly, 40''(9), 831-837.

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2024-08-23T05:29:47Z

Neeraja:

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2024-08-09T05:42:17Z

Neeraja:

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2024-08-09T05:42:12Z

Neeraja:

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Ahoi Ashtami

2024-08-08T08:36:31Z

Neeraja:

Ahoi Ashtami is a festival most of us barely even know about. Some would be familiar with a faint memory of their childhood, when after Barsātein (another almost forgotten festival) and one week before Diwali, married women with children would keep nirjala vṛta (without food and water) for a day and worship Ahoi Mātā. Ahoi Mātā has various different depictions and appearances but she is often imagined in the form of a porcupine. Women cook festive food and most impoṛtantly ‘Gadkore’ which are like chickpea fritters.

In the morning the worship is done on a platform created by making svastika with rice paste or haldi paste. A kalaśa with water and coconut is also placed. The story of Ahoi Mātā is narrated and then the Gadkore are distributed to the children. In various homes these Gadkore are thrown in the air and the children are free to grab as many as they can. The Vṛta is broken in the evening by looking at the first stars and not the moon. As the stars appear first in the sky before the moon on this day so it is considered a somewhat easier vṛta than the more popular Karvācauṭha.

It is a festival basically by mothers for children. That we all know about Mother’s Day today and barely a few know about Ahoi Aṣtamī tells much about the cultural colonialism of Christianity that we suffer from in electoral democracy. While Mother’s Day is just a day of commemoration assigned by secular governments, the festival of Ahoi Aṣtamī has many cosmic truths hidden in it. Hindu Dharma imparts these cosmic truths to everyone regardless of their educational status through these rituals, customs and festivals.

The most interesting thing about Ahoi Aṣtamī is the Kathā that is narrated on this day when women worship Ahoi Mātā. Or rather I should say many Kathās, for there are many variants of the same Kathā.

The story goes like this. A family has seven sons and one daughter. All of them are married. Once during the festival of Diwali, the daughter is visiting her mother’s house too and they are all together. They are cleaning the house and the surroundings for the festive season. While cleaning the garden with a spade they unknowingly hit the burrow of a porcupine and kill the newly born pups of the porcupine. They are much in sorrow for this unfortunate misdeed but the pups are already dead. When the porcupine mother comes home, she is oveṛtaken with grief and curses the killers of her children that just like her pups were killed so the children of the killer will also not survive.

Incidentally it is the spade of the visiting daughter which kills the pups. The daughter is taken with much grief as she is still childless. She then requests all her sister-in-laws to undergo the curse in her place as all of them already have at least one child and she does not even have one. All of them deny except the youngest one who agrees to take the curse upon her.

Though she undeṛtakes the harsh curse she is also taken with grief as she wants more children. She does beget children but seven of them die one after another just after the birth. She then goes to a learned Brahmin to know how to break the curse. The Brahmin tells her that she has to serve the holy cow, with whole of heart and then the curse will break. But it is a special kind of cow called Surahi cow and the sister-in-law has to go find her.

She sets out to find the cow. On her way she finds that a snake is about to eat the child of Garuḍa, (eagle). She intervenes, kills the snake and releases the child. Garuḍa becomes happy upon seeing this and takes her to the Surahi cow. She then sets about serving the cow with all her heart and after the passage of some time, the cow becomes happy with her service, and breaks the curse on her womb.

She gets home and finds that all her dead children are back home. She then starts the worship of Ahoi Mātā and makes it a tradition every year. This is how the tradition starts and the festival becomes celebrated by other women too.
You might laugh at the ‘superstitious magic’ that is involved in the story but sacred cosmologies have a way of communicating to us in myths and legends. These myths and stories talk in the language of symbols and sacred metaphors. These metaphors and symbols work on a much higher plane of consciousness than the rational, logical one. The metaphors embedded in sacred stories and enacted through rituals are not unlike mantras
If you practice these rituals over a long period of time, the metaphors open their meaning to you; meanings which are cosmic; which are impossible for the rational, logical mind to grasp; meanings which reveal the hidden connections of the cosmos to the individual; meanings which tell about cosmic rhythms which are invisible and yet omnipresent.

To flow with these rhythms (ṛta) is dharma. To struggle against them is adharma. Whole of Sanātana Hindu dharma with all its traditions, rituals and customs is a way to make individuals flow with these cosmic rhythms even when they don’t intellectually grasp them. The intent of Sanātana dharma is to make people follow deep ecological rules, to preserve ecosystem, Nature and also culture even if they don’t directly comprehend the immensity of the data and logic involved.
The story of Ahoi Aṣtamī is particularly intent upon instilling a deep ecological sense in those who follow it.
To start with, the goddess is a porcupine, not generally an animal you associate with divinity. It is to show that divinity lies everywhere. It shows that our actions have implications and that if you hurt someone you cannot forgo its consequences.

Human civilization is violence against Nature. Hindu dharma through its various rituals recognizes this fact deeply. The starting point of Vāstu Śāstra is to appease the disturbance in Nature that human building activity creates. Similarly, agriculture is violence against the earth. To make up for that disturbance there are various rituals which instill the sense in us that we have to give back to Nature as we take from it.

Ahoi Aṣtamī shows this dilemma. It is basically an activity of human civilization which kills the wild animals and there are serious consequences of that. The curse is shifted from one person to other but it remains until the sister-in-law saves another child from death and thus restores the balance of Nature back. It is only then that the curse is lifted.
The story instills deep sense in the Hindus that our actions have consequences; that human civilization destroys Nature by the sheer act of living in great groups and thus has to make extra efforts to respect and protect Nature; and that we have to give back to Nature as we take much from it, if we want to maintain the ecosystem and restore the balance of Nature, ecology and dharma. It is a deep ecological sense which these small festivals instilled in their followers and worshippers.
On this day the worshippers are encouraged not to use any sharp object or man-made weapon to signal the intent to not harm Nature. On Daśaharā we celebrate the weapons for cultural reasons: to destroy adharma. On Ahoi Aṣtamī we steer clear from them and any sharp object so that we restore the balance of Nature and dharma. This is how deep the Hindu sense of ecology now.

It was these festivals and their ‘stupid superstitions’ which managed to instill this deep sense of ecology in its inhabitants without elaborate research or studies, and without the help of the State, colleges and universities. Even the illiterate had that sense of ecology and it was not enforced by the State or by the rule of law, but in a bottom-up manner by dharma itself, and through its much maligned rituals, customs and traditions.

Contemporary Hindus need to celebrate every such small Hindu festival to celebrate the greatness that is the Hindu dharma, the greatness that is Sanātana dharma, and to continue the greatest way to instill a deep sense of ecology in our future generations.

Authored by Pankaj Saxena.
Published by Brhat.[[Category:Art and Culture]]

Ahoi Ashtami

2024-08-08T08:35:46Z

Neeraja:

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NIRAYANA METHOD

2024-05-28T09:09:03Z

Neeraja: Undo revision 315 by Sriram (talk)

Zodiacs are nothing but the constellations along the ecliptic on the celestial sphere. There are 12 constellations along the ecliptic, each in a 30°segment, as accepted by the IAU. We measure the celestial longitude of these segments from a reference point known as the vernal equinoctial point, as per modern astronomy.

In Western astronomy, they also consider the equinoctial points to define the constellation along the ecliptic. But if we observe these points with reference to the background fixed stars by an observer sitting on Earth, these points seem to move approximately 1° every 72 years; this phenomenon is known as the precession of the equinox or solstice. So, if we calculate celestial longitude and latitude, or right ascension and declination, i.e., the coordinates of the constellation or fixed star with reference to the vernal equinox point, which is not fixed, then their coordinates will also change on a regular interval; we cannot locate them in the same place on the celestial sphere. Likewise, the position of the zodiac or asterism will also change with respect to the vernal equinoctial point.

In Western astronomy, the first zodiac, Aries, starts with the vernal equinoctial point. Since the point itself is moveable, the zodiac will also move. This system is known as the Sayana System or tropical system <ref>"The Real Constellations of the Zodiac." Dr. Lee T. Shapiro, ''Planetarian,'' Vol 6, #1, Spring (1977). </ref>.

In the Hindu astronomy method, the first zodiac, Aries, starts with a fixed point instead of a vernal equinoctial point. They take a fixed star as a reference point to calculate the coordinates of any stars or constellations. Then they set up a fixed zodiac system along the ecliptic. Making these a reference system, they trace all these constellations and stars and equinoctial points. So, the position of the zodiac or asterism will not change. Instead, they allow the movement of the equinoctial points with reference to the Zodiac System. This system is known as the Nirayana method or the Sideral method.

We can consider the sideral method to calculate how much the equinox and solstice points shift from their starting points and trace the precession of the equinox over a very long period of time. Once we trace the cardinal points with respect to their starting point, it is easy to correct the longitude and latitude of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere, as well as resetting the calendar to avoid being out of sync with seasons. Similarly, western calendars only follow tropical calculations, so their calendar is also out of sync with equinox and solstice days and will be out of sync with the seasons in the future. So, when making a calendar, we have to consider both the model and the calculations.

A calendar is primarily used for keeping track of time, navigation, and seasonal information for farming. Equinoxes and solstices are connected to seasons from an astronomical perspective. The equinox and solstice dates of the Gregorian calendar were set in relation to the calendar. The vernal equinox point was fixed on March 21 by deducting certain days, roughly 11 days, from the Julian calendar because the equinoxes' precession causes these points to move with respect to the calendar <ref>J. Meeus, D. Savoie, The history of the tropical year, Journal of the British Astronomical Association 102 (1) (1992) 40{42.</ref>. Thus, for a brief period of time, the Gregorian calendar was in line with the seasons; nevertheless, over time, it too drifted away from them. The calendar was created using tropical year lengths, making it a tropical calendar. The Hindu calendar (Pañcāńga) is a sideral calendar since it was created using the sideral year length.

In spite of the Indian National Calendar (a Tropical Calendar), which was proposed by the Calendar Reform Committee under the chairmanship of Prof. Meghanad Shah, numerous people in India still use lunisolar calendars, in which the length of a year is determined by the movement of the sun and the sidereal moon cycle determines the months. Hindu calendars (Pañcāńga) vary slightly from one another in terms of computations, depending on the locale. This is so that Pañcāńga, which is not exclusively astronomical, may take into account local geography <ref>M.H. Saha and N.C. Lahiri, Report of the Calendar Reform Committee, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1992.</ref>. Based on the geocentric paradigm, all of these calendars use observations of the planets and stars made from Earth to make computations. The date of New Year's is also flexible. They do not determine the duration of a year using the four equinoctial points, as is the case with the solar tropical calendar. In this concept, they calculated the length of a year using 0 Aries (a fixed star in the Aries constellation) as their reference point along the ecliptic. A reliable calendar that could reliably forecast the monsoons was necessary for agricultural success. A reliable calendar is required for the accurate measurement of seasons because agriculture accounts for a substantial portion of India's economy. Thus, it is necessary to use both tropical and sideral methods of calculation.

The lunisolar calendar that we use in India seems to be out of sync with the seasons because the Nirayana Winter Solstice (Makar Sankranti or Uttarāyana) given by the lunisolar calendar falls approximately 23 or 24 days after the Tropical or Sāyana Winter Solstice (which is actually observed by a person on Earth). Similarly, with the Summer Solstice, Vernal Equinox, and Autuman Equinox, which are the basis for synchronisation of seasons with the calendar, But the calendar is not actually out of sync with the seasons; our ancient astronomer used a different method for this synchronization. The correct tropical values are obtained by adding Ayanāṃśa to the nirayana calculation in order to bring Pañcāńga into harmony with the seasons. So, tracing of this Ayanāṃśa value is the most important factor for the lunisolar calendar to remain sync with the seasons and make the timekeeping method of the calendar not vary for a longer time period <ref>"Ayanamshas in Sidereal Astrology". ''www.astro.com''. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved July 29, 2020.</ref>. Ayanāṃśa is the arc length along the ecliptic measured from the zero point to the vernal equinox point in degrees, arc minutes, and arc seconds. So, if we use the Nirayana method for making a calendar, we can use this calendar for a very long period of time.