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'''Mantra chanting as an intervention for stress management'''

Vidisha Maithani

'''Mentor:''' Mohit Chandra

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

= '''Introduction''' =
The word Mantra refers to a combination of two Sanskrit roots: ''‘Man-’'' which refers to the mind and ''‘-tra’'' which refers to an instrument (Lolla, 2018). Thus, a mantra is referred to as an instrument of the mind, a powerful combination of verbal and auditory stimuli that can be employed to enhance and engage higher cognitive faculties such as improved focus and better thought regulation. Mantra chanting has been an integral part of the ancient Indian traditions and is currently researched with a renewed inquisitiveness to assess its potential implications on psychological and physiological well-being in individuals. According to the 2012 National Health Interview Survey in United States, 1.6% of the population practiced mantra meditation over the 12-month period suggesting 3.6 million practicing adults (Burke et al., 2017). The mechanism of mantra chanting works through the vibration produced through articulation. According to Yogi Bhajan who introduced Kundalini Yoga in the West, 84 meridian points are situated on the hard palate of the roof of the mouth, 32 pairs located alongside the inside of the teeth, and 20 located in a U shape on the centre of the palate. During the articulation of the mantra, the movement of the tongue causes the stimulation of these meridian points, which in turn stimulates the hypothalamus (Staples, 2018).

= '''Mantra chanting and its physiological correlates''' =
Various physiological measures have been employed to test the effectiveness of mantra chanting on the human brain and body. These methods include electroencephalogram (EEG), functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) research studies. 2001 research by Bernardi and colleagues, studied the effects of the Ave Maria prayer (Latin) and yoga mantras effect on the cardiovascular rhythms and the breathing rate. Both the stimuli showed slowing of breathing rate to approximately 6 breaths per minute and increased synchronisation and variability in cardiovascular rhythms. Reduction in Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and baroreflex sensitivity signals poor prognosis in cardiovascular diseases. Slow breathing enhances HRV and thus mantra chanting may have a positive impact on cardiovascular health (Bernardi et al., 2001). Another study observed the effect of Om meditation on brain function using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). The results indicated reduced activation of the pre-frontal cortex (Bhargav et al., 2016). Listening to the Om mantra sound leads to activation of left dorsolateral middle frontal cortex and right supramarginal gyrus implicating activations of neural systems involved in emotional empathy (Kumar et al., 2015). Impact of Om meditation is also observed on Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). A significant increase in GSR values is perceived when Om meditation is practiced for 30 minutes each day for a month suggesting a psychophysiological relaxation (Das & Anand, 2012).

= '''Mantra chanting and stress management''' =
The stress response in humans has evolved over centuries to serve the purpose of maintaining homeostasis in conditions of real or perceived stress (Russell & Lightman, 2019). Sympathetic nervous system activates in response to stress, leading to an increase in cortisol levels. Chronic stress or long-term exposure to stress, if left unresolved may develop into psychological disorders. Mantra chanting may act as an intervention for stress reduction and self-management of stress symptoms. Various research studies have assessed the impact of mantra meditation on stress levels. Sharma and Singh (2014) studied the impact of mantra chanting on academic stress in adolescents. Academic stress, as mentioned in the study, refers to any subjective psychological distress including perceived academic performance, worry, dissatisfaction with grades and other related distress. The stress was assessed using the Educational Stress Scale for Adolescents (ESSA) (Sun et al., 2011). OM mantra and Gayatri mantra were selected as the intervention stimuli. The results showed significant reduction of stress in five domains measured (pressure from the society, workload, worry about grade, self-expectation stress and despondency). Another study by Bajappanavar and Upadhye (2021) confirmed the impact of Om chanting on examination stress in medical students, as assessed on the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al, 1983). Similar significant results in stress reduction were measured in college students when om chanting was practiced for 30 days (Bhatt & Gupta, 2013). Mantra chanting also influences the type of stress coping mechanism utilised. Individuals who chant mantra utilise approach-coping strategies to deal with stress in comparison to individuals who do not chant mantra and use avoidance-coping strategies (Agarwal & Agarwal, 2013). Apart from academic stress, working professionals also often display the symptoms of burnout and stressful episodes. A study on nursing professionals assessed the levels of serum cortisol and salivary amylase levels to predict the stress levels (W.J et al., 2021). Cortisol and salivary amylase levels are considered as salivary stress biomarkers. Levels of cortisol represents the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity and alpha-amylase indicate the levels of sympathetic activity (Tammayan et al., 2021). In the research study, chanting of Mahamantra ''(“Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare; Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare”)'' for 20 minutes for 45 days resulted in reduction of serum cortisol and salivary amylase levels among the nursing professionals (W.J et al., 2021). Another study by Sekar and colleagues (2019) found similar results for the Mahamantra chanting on women nursing professionals. The results showed a significant increase in parasympathetic tone (LF/HF ratio), shortened Auditory Reaction Time (ART) and Visual Reaction Time (VRT) and a significant reduction in serum cortisol levels. Chanting of Om mantra also significantly reduced anxiety level in bus drivers in a duration 4 weeks (Rankhambe & Pande, 2021).

= '''Conclusion''' =
In multiple studies, mantra chanting has shown its effectiveness in a wide range of age groups from adolescents to older adults. Its effectiveness has been measured through psychological and behavioural measures. In the review of the literature, the majority of the studies included Om mantra, Gayatri mantra and Mahamantra chanting. The ancient Indian texts contains various other mantras, shlokas and suktam for different purposes such as for physical ailments, psychological disorders and overall well-being. Future research studies can observe the effects of these mantras on various other psychological aspects and as an early intervention method to manage and prevent stress.

'''Keywords:''' mantra chanting, stress management, om mantra, gayatri mantra, mahamantra, physiological studies, stress intervention

= '''References''' =
Agarwal, A., & Agarwal, A. (2013) Impact of mantra chanting on stress coping.

Bajappanavar, M., & Upadhye, J. A. (2021). Effect of OM chanting during examination stress in students. ''International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health'', ''8''(6), 140–142. www.kheljournal.com

Bernardi, L., Sleight, P., Bandinelli, G., Cencetti, S., Fattorini, L., Wdowczyc-Szulc, J., & Lagi, A. (2001). Effect of rosary prayer and yoga mantras on autonomic cardiovascular rhythms: comparative study. ''BMJ'', ''323''(7327), 1446–1449. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1446</nowiki>

Bhargav, H., Manjunath, N. K., Varambally, S., Mooventhan, A., Bista, S., Singh, D., Chhabra, H., Venkatasubramanian, G., Srinivasan, T. M., & Nagendra, H. R. (2016). Acute effects of 3G mobile phone radiations on frontal haemodynamics during a cognitive task in teenagers and possible protective value of Om chanting. ''International Review of Psychiatry'', ''28''(3), 288–298. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2016.1188784</nowiki>

Burke, A., Lam, C. N., Stussman, B., & Yang, H. (2017). Prevalence and patterns of use of mantra, mindfulness and spiritual meditation among adults in the United States. ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'', ''17''(1). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1827-8</nowiki>

Cohen, S. (1994). ''PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE''. www.mindgarden.com

Das, I., & Anand, H. (2012). Effect of Prayer and “OM” Meditation in Enhancing Galvanic Skin Response. ''Psychological Thought'', ''5'', 141–149. <nowiki>https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16193550</nowiki>

Kumar, U., Guleria, A., & Khetrapal, C. L. (2015). Neuro-cognitive aspects of “OM” sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''29''(3), 432–441. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.917609</nowiki>

Lolla, A. (2018). Mantras Help the General Psychological Well-Being of College Students: A Pilot Study. ''Journal of Religion and Health'', ''57''(1), 110–119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0371-7</nowiki>

Rankhambe, H., & Pande, S. (2021). Effect of “Om” chanting on anxiety in bus drivers. ''National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology'', ''11''(2), 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5455/njppp.2021.11.10268202014102020</nowiki>

Russell, G., & Lightman, S. (2019). The human stress response. ''Nature Reviews Endocrinology'', ''15''(9), 525–534. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0228-0</nowiki>

Sekar, L., Niva, W., Maheshkumar, K., Thangavel, G., Manikandan, A., Silambanan, S., Shriraam, V., & Ramaswamy, P. (2019). Effect of Mahamantra Chanting on Autonomic and Cognitive Functions-An Interventional Study. ''JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2019/41236.12877</nowiki>

Sharma, A., & Singh, R. (n.d.). ''Combating Educational Stress in Adolescents: The Miraculous Role of Chanting Mantras''.

Sun, J., Dunne, M. P., Hou, X. yu, & Xu, A. qiang. (2011). Educational stress scale for adolescents: Development, validity, and reliability with Chinese students. ''Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment'', ''29''(6), 534–546. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282910394976</nowiki>

Tammayan, M., Jantaratnotai, N., & Pachimsawat, P. (2021). Differential responses of salivary cortisol, amylase, and chromogranin A to academic stress. ''PLoS ONE'', ''16''(8 August). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256172</nowiki>

W.J, N., Sekar, L., Manikandan, A., K, M. K., T, G., Shriraam, V., Silambanan, S., & R, P. (2021). Mahamantra chanting as an effective intervention for stress reduction among nursing professionals—A randomized controlled study. ''Advances in Integrative Medicine'', ''8''(1), 27–32. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aimed.2020.05.007</nowiki>

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Anilgs: Uploaded first draft