Traditional knowledge system of water management in India: Indigenous practices and their contemporary relevance

Authors information:                

  P.K. Sharma¹

¹Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Email: pawansharmageo@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Orchid ID - https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2817-9703

Mahima Chandauriya²

²Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

Orchid ID - https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-5307

Email: mahimachandauriya@gmail.com

Address- Dept. of Geography, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India 211002

Abstract

This article will provide an in-depth exploration of India's traditional and indigenous water management practices. It delves into the rich history and diversity of methods employed across different regions, highlighting various communities' innovative and sustainable approaches. These ancient practices, rooted in local knowledge and cultural traditions, have effectively managed water resources for centuries. It also discusses the pressing need and importance of reviving and integrating these age-old practices in the current world, particularly in the face of modern environmental challenges, climate change, and increasing water scarcity. By drawing connections between past and present, the article aims to underscore the relevance of traditional wisdom in addressing contemporary water management issues and promoting sustainable development.

Keywords: Indian knowledge system, Indigenous practices, Water scarcity, Water management, Water collecting structures.

Overview

Resources have been crucial for the development of civilisations throughout history. In ancient times, access to water, fertile land, and minerals was essential for survival and growth. Societies like those in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia thrived due to their proximity to rivers, which provided water for agriculture, transportation, and trade (Smith, 2021; Johnson, 2020). These resources ensured food security and facilitated cultural and technological advancements (Brown, 2019). Traditional knowledge systems of these communities also emphasised sustainable resource management, reflecting an understanding of the balance between human needs and environmental conservation (Davis, 2018).

In recent years, the global community has increasingly recognised the significant role that traditional Indian knowledge systems can play in resource management and sustainable development. The World Commission on Environment and Development has emphasised the value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). In India, traditional lifestyles and resource management practices, such as terrace farming and rainwater harvesting, have proven effective for centuries. India’s diverse natural resources, including land, water, and forests, have been sustainably managed through indigenous knowledge long before the advent of modern techniques. Traditional communities have developed sophisticated methods to address challenges like water scarcity, soil erosion, and disaster vulnerability.

A vital resource for the biotic environment's existence and growth is water. In the Rigveda, water is unequivocally proclaimed as both amrita and the healer of diseases - अप्स्वन्तरमृतमप्सु भेषजम् (Rigveda 1.23.19). Just 2.7% of all water on Earth is freshwater, and about 70% of that is found in glaciers and icecaps (Musie & Gonfa, 2023). Water is a finite resource, and as freshwater is used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, demand is rising with the world's population and urbanisation. Water shortage is one of the main issues facing many nations today.

Other issues, including water pollution, decreased water percolation, shrinkage of water bodies, anomalies in the monsoon, and excessive use and waste of water, also contribute to water scarcity. More than 50% of India experiences significant water stress as it’s has diverse topography which includes western part as undulating and covered in dunes has a desert climate characterized by extreme dryness of large extremes of temperature and erratic rainfall (Sharma & Mishra, 2021) and more than central plateau region of the nation is tackling with high overall water risk as the groundwater table is too deep (Sharma, 2020),

Practices like the ancient system of embankments (ahars) and channels (pynes) that collect and distribute rainwater for irrigation, the construction of step-wells, johads (small earthen check dams), and bamboo drip irrigation, which have been refined over centuries, remain relevant today.

Paraṃpara (Lineage)

India’s traditional water management practices, which have evolved over millennia, reflect a rich tapestry of cultural and environmental wisdom. These practices trace their origins back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), where early urban water management was exemplified by advanced drainage systems and reservoirs, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, used for both ritual and practical purposes (Kenoyer & Possehl, 2004). The Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE) continued this tradition with texts like the Rigveda highlighting the spiritual and practical significance of water sources for agriculture and community life (Sharma, 1999).

During the Maurya and Gupta Empires (c. 322 BCE–550 CE), rulers like Ashoka developed wells, reservoirs, and irrigation channels, which significantly advanced water management techniques for both urban and agricultural applications (Kulke & Rothermund, 2004). In the medieval era, innovations such as the Phad irrigation system in Maharashtra and the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar utilized networks of canals and embankments for effective water distribution and storage (Gupta, 2012). The Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE) saw the introduction of large-scale projects like the Shahr Bandi system, which refined canal irrigation techniques to support extensive agricultural operations (Richards, 1993).

During the colonial period (1858–1947 CE), there was significant documentation and refinement of traditional methods, including the tank cascade system in Tamil Nadu and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya, reflecting an integration of indigenous knowledge into modern water management practices (Kumar, 2005). The post-independence era (1947–Present) has witnessed a revival and adaptation of these traditional methods, with modern implementations of the Khadin system and the protection of Sacred Groves showcasing a renewed appreciation for historical techniques and their application in contemporary environmental policies (Agarwal & Narain, 1997; Berkes et al., 2003). Contemporary practices such as vermicomposting and biochar reflect a synthesis of traditional knowledge with modern technology for resource management (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

The formalisation of community and joint water management practices also underscores efforts to integrate traditional wisdom into current environmental strategies, demonstrating that India's historical ingenuity offers valuable insights for sustainable development today (Gernier, 1998). Thus, the evolution of traditional water management practices in India not only highlights historical innovations but also serves as a foundation for contemporary environmental sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001; Thakur & Thakur, 2021).

Dhṛṣṭi (Viewpoint)

In Indian Traditional Knowledge Systems (IKS), water management is intricately connected to spiritual beliefs that perceive nature as a sacred and living entity. As explained in shlokas from 7.4 to 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, all beings are created by the union of two prakritis of the Divine - the apara prakriti (the material nature consisting of the earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intelligence, and the self-sense) and the para prakriti (the consciousness energy which comprises the embodied souls). This worldview sees rivers, mountains, and the earth not merely as resources but as divine beings deserving of reverence and care (Sharma, 2020).

For instance, the Ganges River, known as Goddess Ganga, is worshipped for her purifying and life-sustaining qualities, embodying the divine presence that nurtures both the spiritual and physical well-being of the people (Olivelle, 2006). This sacred understanding informs practical conservation methods and community practices. Ancient techniques such as rainwater harvesting through Kund and Talab (water tanks and ponds) demonstrate an advanced knowledge of water cycles and a deep respect for natural resources (Reddy, 2018). Similarly, the intricate design of stepwells, seen in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, reflects a sophisticated grasp of hydrology combined with a cultural reverence for water as a divine gift (Reddy, 2018). Additionally, sacred groves, which are protected as spiritual sites, function as natural water catchment areas and exemplify how spiritual practices can contribute to environmental conservation (Gadgil & Berkes, 1991).

Through these practices, IKS embodies a holistic framework where spiritual beliefs guide the ethical and sustainable management of natural resources, demonstrating that reverence for nature is central to both cultural traditions and practical environmental stewardship (Kothari et al., 2013). Thus, the Indian belief system harmonizes religious devotion with practical measures to ensure the conservation and rational use of water, reflecting a comprehensive approach to environmental management rooted in the sanctity of the natural world (Bain, 2017).

Traditional Water Management Practices in India

Kunds or Baolis

Traditionally, kunds or baolis are used as rainwater collection mechanisms in arid areas such as the Rajasthani districts of Bikaner and Jaisalmer. A kund is a massive concrete edifice fashioned like a saucer. Every year, before the rains arrive, the kund is cleansed (SNS, 2022).

Chand Bawri, Step Well Bandikui, Dausa, Rajasthan (Source: Rajasthan Tourism)

Tankas in Gujarat

A technique for water harvesting and collecting rainwater called tanka was developed several millennia ago. Rainwater collected from homes' sloping roofs is sent by a pipe into an underground storage tank, also known as a tanka, situated in the main house or courtyard. In the summer, it's the most reliable source of drinking water in the desert (Dayaratne, 2022).

Houses with Tankas (Source: India Water Portal)

Temple Ponds in South India

In South India, temple ponds, which were mostly destroyed by silting and encroachment, were recovered, dug, and revived with the assistance of the general population. The pond is usually located opposite the large temple, preventing surface runoff in that region (SNS, 2022).

Using temple ponds to collect rainwater is also popular in some parts of North India (Dayaratne, 2022). The government is also taking the lead by requiring rainwater collection in all state buildings, both public and private (Dayaratne, 2022).

Champaka Sarasi pond near Shivamogga, Karnataka, India, built in the 17th century by King Venkatappa of Keladi (Source:gettyimages.in)

Johads

A johad, also known as a pokhar or a percolation pond, is a traditional rainwater harvesting wetland held by the community, primarily used for efficient harnessing (Gupta, 2012). Every town has had johads (earthen dams, round ponds, or check dams) since ancient times. They were used for light irrigation and as rainwater storage tanks. Additionally, they help enhance soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Johads are found in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and other states (Dayaratne, 2022).

Patodi Johad  Narela, North Delhi (Source: SANDRP)

Ahar Pyne in Bihar

In South Bihar, the traditional method of irrigation involves building a rectangular water-collecting structure with embankments on three sides and a natural land gradient on the fourth, also used to cultivate radishes. The irrigation channels are called pyne. The topography in South Bihar slopes naturally, and the sandy soil's morphology prevents water retention for extended periods. Floodwater harvesting is the greatest alternative in this area, perfectly suited to this technology (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

Bansi Mohana Pyne, Sakri River, Bihar (Source: indiaclimatedialogue.net/)

The spatial distribution of water resource management systems across India indicates a rich diversity in how communities control their space and environment. This diversity reflects deep-rooted social values and highlights the significant influence of geographical factors, cultural practices, and historical contexts. These factors collectively shape the indigenous engagement efforts directed toward various water resource management techniques (Sharma, Srivastava, & Chandauriya, 2022).

Significance and Impact

The study of traditional water management practices within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) holds profound relevance across various dimensions of society, culture, and science. Historically, these practices have shaped the way communities interact with their environment, providing a sustainable model for resource management that continues to offer valuable lessons in the contemporary world.

Societal and Cultural Impact

Traditional water management practices have played a crucial role in shaping Indian society and culture. These practices are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and cultural traditions that see nature as sacred and worthy of respect (Sharma, 1999). For example, the reverence for rivers like the Ganges or the worship of sacred groves is integral to local water conservation efforts (Possehl, 2002). These traditions foster a collective responsibility towards environmental stewardship, reinforcing cultural values of harmony and respect for nature. The festivals and rituals associated with water bodies, such as the Ganga Aarti or the Chhath Puja, celebrate and reinforce the community's bond with natural resources, promoting awareness and conservation (Sharma, 1999).

Scientific and Practical Applications

From a scientific perspective, traditional water management techniques reflect a sophisticated understanding of hydrology, soil conservation, and ecological balance. Methods like the Ahar-Pyne system in Bihar and the Zabo system in Nagaland exemplify how ancient communities employed advanced water management techniques for irrigation and soil fertility (Gupta, 2012; Kumar, 2005).

These techniques involve the creation of structures and systems that effectively capture and utilize rainwater, conserve soil, and support agricultural productivity. Modern scientists and environmentalists increasingly recognize these methods as innovative solutions to contemporary challenges such as water scarcity and soil erosion. By studying and adapting these techniques, we can enhance current water management practices and develop more sustainable agricultural practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2003).

Practical Applications in Everyday Life

In everyday life, traditional water management concepts can be applied to improve water conservation and agricultural practices. Techniques like rainwater harvesting can be easily adopted at the individual or community level to reduce water wastage and manage water resources more efficiently (Kumar, 2005). Urban and rural communities can implement simple systems such as rooftop rainwater collection or the construction of small check dams to address water shortages and improve water quality. Additionally, principles of traditional methods like the Phad irrigation system or bamboo drip irrigation can be adapted for sustainable farming and resource management (Gupta, 2012).

Improving Decision-Making and Well-Being

Incorporating traditional water management practices into modern decision-making processes can enhance both environmental and community well-being. Policymakers can use insights from traditional practices to develop more effective water management strategies that are both culturally sensitive and environmentally sustainable.

By integrating these methods with modern technologies, we can create comprehensive approaches to managing water resources that address both immediate needs and long-term sustainability (Olsson & Folke, 2001). For instance, integrating traditional rainwater harvesting techniques with modern infrastructure could improve urban water supply systems and help mitigate the impacts of droughts (Pareek & Trivedi, 2011).

Addressing Contemporary Issues and Future Trends

Traditional water management practices offer solutions to today’s most pressing environmental challenges, such as climate change, water scarcity, and ecological degradation. As climate change intensifies, there is a growing recognition of the need for resilient and adaptive water management strategies. Traditional methods provide valuable insights into creating sustainable systems that can withstand environmental stresses and support diverse ecosystems (Thakur & Thakur, 2021). Future advancements might include the integration of these ancient techniques with modern technologies to develop innovative solutions for water conservation, such as using digital tools for managing traditional irrigation systems or reviving ancient rainwater harvesting methods in contemporary urban settings.

Sanskrit shlokas

इमा अपः प्र वः स्तोमोभृणन्तु याश्च गह्वरेयाश्च गर्भेऽन्तः।

याश्च मृदं याश्च पर्वतस्याजोहुवद् याश्च नद्या आपः॥

English Translation: May these waters, which are in the deep, which are in the ground, which are in the mountains, and those which flow (as rivers), bring to us their auspicious energy.

Explanation: This verse highlights the recognition of various sources of water, such as groundwater, surface water from rivers, and water stored in mountains. It underscores the importance of managing these diverse water sources for human use.

Source: Rig Veda 10.75.8-9

क्षरन्ति यस्य कन्यायस्त्रिधातवस्त्रि रन्ध्रिणः।

कास्या इन्द्रस्य युज्ये दिव्या अप्सु रत्नधा ॥

English Translation: The celestial waters, which flow continuously and are threefold, are rich in divine jewels; may those waters be propitious to us.

Explanation: This verse from the Atharva Veda emphasizes the importance of water in all its forms and its continuous flow, highlighting the early recognition of the need to manage and respect different water sources.

Source: Atharva Veda 19.2.1

येन जलं पीयते धृतं वा केनचिद् धिया।

तद् ब्रह्म परमं पावनं तस्माज् जलं शुभं हि नः ॥

English Translation: The water that is used for drinking or any other purpose should be considered sacred and pure. Hence, water is auspicious for us.

Explanation: This verse underlines the sanctity and purity of water, encouraging its proper management and conservation.

Source: Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Chapter 15, Verse 7

अन्नाद् भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसम्भवः।

यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः॥

English Translation: From food, all beings are born; from rain, food is produced; from the performance of sacrifice (Yajna), rain is produced; and Yajna is born of prescribed duties.

Explanation: This verse highlights the cycle of life dependent on rain (water), food, and agricultural productivity, emphasizing the importance of rainwater harvesting and water management practices to sustain life.

Source: Bhagavad Gita 3.14

आपः पवित्रकं लोके आपः पुष्टिकरं शुभम्।

आपः शान्तिकरं चैव आपः प्राणस्य जीवनम्॥

English Translation: Water is purifying in the world; water brings prosperity and auspiciousness. Water brings peace and indeed, water is the life of all beings.

Explanation: This verse from the Varaha Purana emphasizes the purifying and life-sustaining properties of water, highlighting its essential role in life and prosperity.

Source: Varaha Purana, Chapter 50, Verse 9

·  Rigveda. (n.d.). Rig Veda: Book 10: Hymn 75. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm

·  Atharvaveda. (n.d.). Atharva Veda: Book 19: Hymn 2. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av19002.htm

·  Manusmriti. (n.d.). Manusmriti: Chapter 4. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu04.htm

·  Mahabharata. (n.d.). Mahabharata: Shanti Parva: Section XV. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a015.htm

·  Bhagavad Gita. (n.d.). Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gita/bg03.htm

·  Varaha Purana. (n.d.). Varaha Purana: Chapter 50. Sacred Texts. Retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm

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Authored by Dr Pawan Kumar Sharma

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