The Idea of Good Governance in Ancient India with Special Reference to the Mahabharata and Thirukkural

Authored by Amritha V.

Going by the definition of UNDP, governance in the modern conception “comprises of mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their legal obligations and mediate their differences.”

For ages, good governance has been the ideal vision for political scientists, theorists, policymakers, decision-makers and academicians. The goodness of the citizens backed by the goodness of the government has been the prima concern for any society. This demands efficiency, effectiveness, ethical, economic and equitable governance at the systems and sub-systems of the government. Just, fair and citizen-caring governance endowed by accountable and responsible government characterises a good government. Since the inception of government, good governance has been the mainstay of the evaluation of its functioning. Further, I have conceptualised the Indic models of good governance in the backdrop of the super-imposition of Western models in academic discourses. Nonetheless, Euro-centrism is not a new phenomenon. It has been swaying the scholarly works on polity and society over the past few decades. This humble attempt is driven by a motive to trace the roots of the so-called 'Western' notions in our age-old scriptures.

The unprecedented crises that we witness each day, conflicts and clashes between countries, super powers being suspicious of each other and recent reports of UNHRC on governance calls for greater responsiveness as these problems are deep-rooted and threatening our sustenance. It is at this juncture that Mahabharata and Thirukkural come to our rescue. It also becomes pertinent for us to inculcate the principles of Dharma and other virtues conveyed in the scriptures in state governance, corporate governance, educational curriculum and other spheres to revive the age-old values the Indian subcontinent is instilled in.

Idea of Good Governance in the Mahabharata (with special reference to Shantiparva)

In the ravaging war of Kurukshetra between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, after which the former gained a massive victory, Yudhishtira, the eldest among the Pandavas and the one to ascend the throne, approached Bhishma to expound the Rajadharma to him. Bhishma, who had mastered the art and science of Rajadharma, dilated it to Yudhishtira and this was incorporated in the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata. Thence, Shantiparva stands as an authoritative exposition on the origin and intent of the state, rule of law, the institution of kingship-powers and duties of the king.

The book of Shantiparva comprises 365 chapters and 13,716 verses and has three sub-parvas. They are Rajadharmanushasana Parva, Apaddharmanushasana Parva and Mokshadharma Parva. Rajadharmanushasana Parva has 130 chapters and describes the origin of state, kingship and governance. Apaddharmanushasana Parva from chapters 131 to 173 comprises 1649 verses and describes the rule of conduct at times of adversity. Mokshadharma Parva from chapters 174 to 365, with 7351 verses describes the attainment of liberation and self-realisation.

The importance attributed by Mahabharata to the origin of state and kingship is astounding. It states, “A man should first choose his king, then his wife, and only then amass wealth; for without a king in the world where would wife and property be?”

In the state of nature, under anarchy and increasing delusional tendencies among people called for the necessity to uphold dharma, protect family, property and varnashrama dharma by the king. It’s said that the very essence of kingship lies in the realisation of the king that there is nothing higher than dharma and that the well-being of the king and subjects lies in his ability to abide by it.

Bhishma accords huge importance to the coronation of the king as the prime duty of a kingdom; which otherwise would pave way for anarchy and attack by robbers. Further, he adds that the king is the incarnation of Indra on earth; thereby giving divine origin to the idea of kingship. A king is described to be the heart of people, their refuge, greatest glory and happiness. He is the delighter of people, conferrer of happiness, bestower of prosperity, healer of injuries, master of earth and guardian of men.

The discussion further on, revolves around the expositions in Shanti Parva on good governance. It comprises education of the king, his conduct; Rajadharma, accountability in administration, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law, effectiveness and efficiency and desirability of a strategic vision.

Unlike in present times, the education of the king was of paramount importance. The Adi and Anushasana Parvas of Mahabharata state that the king has to get an education in the disciplines of Nitisastra, Itihasa, Purana, Veda and Vedanga, Yuktisara (logic), Philology and Sabdasastra (grammar), music, allied arts and military sciences. He must study the scriptures and also live in the company of reputed teachers to employ his mental faculties.The text also necessitates knowledgeable counsel and advisers for the king.

The proverb ‘No Rajah; No Praja’ defines the desirability of a king. The code of conduct ascertained that means of livelihood and laws of morality are upheld in the kingdom. The vivid example of reign under Duryodhana narrates how non-adherence to the code of conduct brings a moral crisis between the people and the government. King enriched the virtues of the people. An account in the Udyoga Parva mentions that the good conduct of the king fetches him assistance from his allies and other wheels of state to remain strong.

Bhishma gives an account of 36 virtues that the king must relentlessly practise. These virtues such as performing duties without malice, earning wealth without persecution and cruelty, seeking pleasure without attachment, being pure, liberal and so on, seek to establish dharma in all facets of kingship and statecraft. Further, it’s said that the king who is crowned with all accomplishments, and good conduct, is righteous, humble and self-controlled, able to keep his passions under control and is not enquiring but countenancing; never loses prosperity. Administration of justice, keeping his conduct straightforward and abiding by the expedients of concealing his shortcomings, ascertaining the loophole of his enemies and keeping his allies and associates close would also bring him prosperity.

The king has to be Dandavid to ensure that lawlessness doesn’t prevail in the territory.  His conduct must always follow a middle pathand should seek the art of loving his subjects. The king must possess discipline entailing the virtues of universal love, compassion, charity and performance of acts for the welfare of others. It was also important for him to realise the Trivarga-Dharma, Artha and Kama.

Raja dharma was pertinent to state administration and an essential element in ensuring justice, peace and prosperity for the subjects. Such a kingdom, where Rajadharma is upheld was called Dharmarajya and the ruler was titled Dharmaraj. To sum up, Rajadharma is in protecting righteousness and slaying the wicked.

The duties of the king enlisted in the Rajadharma Parva very much resonate with the idea of accountability. Safeguarding the law and order of the country was among the chief duties of the king. He also had the Dharmic duty to protect all varnas.

The king is to keep a watch on the appointed officials who could be troublesome to the people.  His welfare duties amplify the commitment towards social justice and the happiness of the masses. He has to support the weaker sections of the society-the poor, aged, orphans, widows, handicapped and the sanyasis. The officers designated with the task of overlooking local administration acted as the wings of the centre, to ensure accountability.

There were innumerable ways through which transparency was brought about in the polity and statecraft. There were also certain instruments to keep the authority of the king under check. The reign of the king commenced with an oath ceremony; which he was morally bound to respect. Concerning the origin of the state in Shantiparva, Raja Prthu ascends the throne by promising to ensure happiness in the state and be mindful of his duties and responsibilities.

The religious and spiritual sanctions kept the king abreast of the injunctions in Dharmashastras he is bound to abide by. His ministers had a significant role in advising him in his functional duties and the formulation of policies. The 59th chapter of Shantiparva that states; the king is always under the other’s control (parantantra) and never independent (swantantra) captures the institution of checks and balances which existed then. The departments are to be headed by ministers who are attributed portfolios. For instance, under the reign of Yudhishtira, Sanjaya was appointed the minister of finances, Nakula to keep a check on the forces, Phalguna to resist hostile forces, and Arjuna headed the ministry of striking command.These ministers supplemented by functionaries collectively constituted the decision-making body and its implementation.

About any issues; financial matters, in particular, the king sought the advice of concerned departments. He had no right to collect taxes at his whim and nor could he use them without the consent of the respective minister. Similarly, even though the king headed the judiciary, he had no right to interfere and influence the judicial procedure. Apart from this, like in modern times, there were pressure groups and interest groups that exerted considerable influence on the policies relating to industry and taxation. The Shanti Parva and Sabha Parva make references with regard to the guilds which exercised influence over the king’s authority and kept his decisions under check.

To ensure responsiveness, the king must be well aware of the dangers pervading the kingdom and the means to remove them.The ordinary rules are to be suspended at times of emergency. The Shanti Parva describes that the king must save the people from distress and aid with his money. In an outbreak of war, if the government is met with a crisis, financial measures have to be adopted. The king should impose extra tax only after assuring the people of the crisis. The king should even go forth to forge a treat with the enemy for the sake of saving lives. The Parva also discusses how pertinent it is for the king to maintain the treasury.

Ensuring rule of law was much needed to erase anarchy or ‘Matsya Nyaya’; big fish devouring the small fish. Dandaniti is the science of chastisement. According to Bhishma, the destruction of Dandaniti would pave way for the disappearance of three Vedas and the duties of four varnas would get muddled. It is in the fear of punishment, that people do not kill each other and cause instability of Rajadharma. Non-observance of Danda plunges everything into darkness. Of all four ends of life, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Dharma is regarded as human justice. Artha comprises the means that cater to worldly prosperity. Kama refers to pleasure-seeking urges in men while Moksha is the highest end of life.

Bhishma describes the four sources of law viz; Devasammat, ArshaSrota, Lok Sammat and Sanstha Sammat. The robust judicial administration ensured timely justice to the grieved; as justice delayed was believed to pave way for evils in society.  It also advocates capital punishment to uphold virtuousness among individuals. The king has to be impartial while imparting justice or taking action against the violators of Dharma and has to renounce favouritism to his close associates.The examples from that of the kings Janaka of Mithila and Sagara of Ayodhya who inflicted punishments on their sons for violating Dharma are epitomes of beholders of justice and the rule of law. At the same time, it is also advocated that the judicial staff must reflect before sentencing and the punishment sentenced must always be in proportion to the crime committed. It also emphasises striking the right balance between harsh, capital punishments and otherwise. This makes sure that innocent relatives of a criminal are never punished in the name of a crime. Bhishma underscores that the king who uses danda according to his whims and fancies would ‘go to hell’.

Effectiveness and efficiency in the administration could be brought about through a counsel ingrained with values of compassion, ethics, integrity, reliability, reason, justice and knowledge. The coterie of advisers to the king who is appointed to look into the day-to-day affairs of the kingdom must be effective and efficiency-driven. The king is told to give due consideration to the advice of ‘purohits’, who are committed to bringing the king on to the right path. These Brahmanas, who were wise, humble and of noble birth, were intelligent and knew Vedas and the sacred texts. The purohits and rajpurohits catered to the overall development of the kingdom and also ensured that the government is steadfast to morality and ethics.

Shanti Parva also entails strategic vision in the functioning of the king and the council. King was to invoke totalitarian powers whenever required. However, these powers do not make the king omnipotent. Though the king is powerful, Shantiparva strikes down an oppressive king and sanctions the subjects to revolt against one who fails to discharge his duties. In places, Mahabharata allows for revolt against a king, stating that a king who fails to ensure the protection of people is no king and that he should be killed like a mad dog. Hence, in Mahabharata, we see an equilibrium of political obligation and monarchy. Even in the era of absolute monarchy, it’s astounding how political obligation has a generous concern. Contemporary theorists of political obligation, such as T.H Green and Harold Laski recognize how Mahabharata underscores the right of citizens to resist unjust laws and empowers them to remove such a ruler who acts contrary to the well-being of people.

The precepts in the Shantiparva are in lines of ‘SarvajanaSukhinoBhavantu’. Unlike now, the idea of good governance was implicit in kingship then as the king had a threefold obligation to governance; political, moral and social. This brings us to a claim that kinship in ancient India is ‘benevolent and paternalistic-bound’ because of a prolonged compilation of instructions of service that the king has to abide by.

Throughout the discourse, more apparently, the importance accorded to Dharma was profound. Mahabharata specifies ‘dharma vihina, pashubhisamana’; meaning without Dharma, a man is no different from an animal. Dharma seeps into the idiosyncratic problems of the state as an ethical and political agency. As Peter Hill notes, it is driven by the efficacy of individual action and freedom. As apparent in Mahabharata, dharma triggered the rise and fall of kingdoms as and when digressions in dharma took place.

Further, when Yudhishtira asks Bhishma about the path of a king who is abandoned by allies and left in distress with a depleted treasury and no resources to follow, Bhishma advises of ‘apaddharma’. Bhishma speaks of two complementary sides of the same coin of dharma; the one for the capable to abide by and the other for the one in distress. Protection of dharma calls for some amount of adharma and diversion from universal dharma. But then, does this cater to mischief and turn away from Matsya Nyaya? To this, Bhishma answers that even the path of adharma the king has to follow at times of distress must be for the sake of the welfare of people and the preservation of lives but not to meet selfish ends. Chapter 69 of Shantiparva rightly states that the king must first conquer himself and then his enemies. Hence, even apadharma demands the king to discard his likes and dislikes. Therefore, Rajadharma comprehensively answers all the terms and conditions and clarifies the exceptional times at which adharma has to be pursued without giving up on the dharmic base.

The Idea of Good Governance in the Thirukkural

Composed by Tiruvalluvar, Tirukkural is a compilation of thousand and thirty couplets structured in 133 chapters that comprise ten couplets each. Of the three chapters-Arattuppal, Paruttappal and Kamatuppal, the former chapters describe Porul; i.e public affairs, political philosophy and political economy in detail. With over 700 couplets, the section gives us insights into politics and governance in the 4th-5th century CE. Literally meaning ‘sacred verses’, Thirukkural is referred to as ‘pearls of wisdom’. With over 1330 verses, this masterpiece in Tamil literature brilliantly carries the essence of good governance. In this didactic work, he has ostensibly written about governance and entwined it with morals, ethics and prevailing schemes of values.

Participation is a cornerstone of good governance and has a substantial role in the decision making despite the form of government. The couplet 462 in chapter 47 states that it’s impossible to not attain any objective when decisions are taken after holding due deliberations and considerations with the counsel of persons; who constitute the selected associates of the king.  He further states that competency of the person should first be convinced of to the king as to ensure accomplishment of tasks assigned to him. Valluvar further adds that pursuing any decision should be done after due consideration of the expert in any field to understand the complexities and challenges in the project and move accordingly.  He holds that, the institution which is receptive to criticism from the people would be highly esteemed.

Orientation to consensus has reflected in a number of couplets in Tirukkural. According to Tiruvalluvar, seeking the advice of close associates would help attain the set out objectives.  He also sets out that the king must orient himself with the worldly practices as to reach a consensus. It is consensus that sustains any well thought-out decision.

Accountability is exemplified in a number of verses of Thirukkural. Valluvar says that the king, who addresses the people, dispenses justice and ensure protection to them would be considered God.  Further, he adds that he must not run behind conceit or frivolous acts that he becomes unattentive to the welfare calls of people.

Emphasising on transparency, Thiruvalluvar states in one of the verses that the king must be of easy access to his subjects and must refrain from using harsh words as that blemishes his image and such a king would not be transparent to his people. That king, who is courteous, friendly and protects the interests of citizens, would be highly regarded by the people.

As to ensure responsiveness, Valluvar warns that a king will fall into ruins if he does an act that he is not supposed to do or if he fails to do something that he is ought to do. On similar lines, in another couplet, he pronounces that the king should delay deeds which could be delayed but not the ones which ought to be done. These couplets convey the pressing need for a king to run to the service of all his stakeholders whenever the time demands.

Effectiveness and efficiency is reflected throughout the chapter. In one of the couplets, Valluvar says that the vices of procrastination, carelessness, sluggishness, and sleep as the boats that would drive the king to losing his base. Unlike a sloth, a king must be attentive, vigilant and agile for efficient and effective governance in the kingdom.

Speaking of equity, Thiruvalluvar specifically mentions that a king must be capable of not only acquiring and preserving wealth but also distribute it wisely.  Vallluvar’s idea of equity is however not restricted to equal distribution of wealth. He stresses the need of extolling other virtues such as sharing of food and preservation of lives of other creatures-giving a manifold view to the conventional view of equity.

As in Mahabharata, the rule of law is of great pertinence to Valluvar. A just monarch must uphold dual pillars of strict enquiry and impartial justice.  Further on, he says that in the land of righteous monarch, there will be rains and crops in abundance; meaning –justice ensures well-being of one and all.  Valluvar maintains philanthropy, benevolence, rule of justice and welfare of people as the hallmark of any administration. The administration of justice for him, meant unbiased and impartial exercise of judgements. He recommends the king to invoke capital punishment as and when necessary to ensure protection of the subjects and to maintain the law and order. At the same time, he should also ensure that the punishment is not excessive. His conception is similar to the thoughts conveyed in Arthashastra which opines that administration of justice must be in line with the principle of Dharma. He relates justice to rain; the way rain brings prosperity to lands, justice brings prosperity to people. If the government fails to render justice to people at the right time or to ensure redressal of their grievances, it is certain to go down the drain.

Valluvar affirms the desirability of strategic vision in a few couplets. He gives supreme importance to fortifications, a strong army and a well-knit espionage system. Any move of the king should align with certain considerations such as the strength of his plan, his resources, strength of the enemy and the ally alike.  It is astounding how Thiruvalluvar, in one of his couplets stresses on the need for the king to act in conformity with the world opinion; to acknowledge the realities of the word and act wisely.

Valluvar attributes huge importance to fortifications. According to him, they catered to the security measures of a kingdom and maintenance of peace. He describes that a fort must have accessibility to water, fertile lands and must be equipped with arms and ammunitions. It should be designed in a way that it resists attacks and is inaccessible for the enemies.

An army marked with valour, fearlessness, trustworthiness, honour, chivalry and fortitude make it invincible. The soldiers must be highly efficient, well-trained and malleable to demanding circumstances. The king must attend to the demands of the army and ensure that it has a decisive and capable leadership.

Valluvar also notes down the characteristics needed in a diplomat or envoy. As he puts it, ‘a book of law and a spy are two eyes of a king’. He should be of noble birth, amiable, patriotic, knowledgeable and eloquent. An erudite and impressive personality should enable him convey messages in a concise and apprehensive way. Espionage system also acquires prominence in the framework of Valluvar’s statecraft and governance. This was imperative to gather information about the enemies and track the movements of people. He emphasises on the need for an espionage system, objectives and methods of such a system and on how to build a network of spies. He describes on the training and attributes of spies. Like Kautilya, Tiruvalluvar sets down the responsibilities and working of a spy system.  According to him, an envoy must possess three qualities; he must have devotion to king, should be wise and must have good facility of speech. Since he is embarking on a great mission of representing his land, he has to be a scholar.

In addition to this, Valluvar elaborates on the qualities of a state, king and the cabinet. He describes that a king must be vigilant, righteous, cordial, diligent and zealous. He must always adhere to the principle of Dharma. Similar to Saptanga theory of Kautilya, he proposes six bases to the efficiency of a king; viz, a trustworthy army, responsible citizenry, a resourceful treasury, efficient cabinet and officials, well equipped fortress, espionage system and cordial relations with the foreign counterparts. He must be honest, polite and valorous. His prior commitments must be to produce and accumulate wealth, conserve resources, ensure equal distribution of wealth and security of people. An ideal king must be benevolent, rectitude, fortitude and concern for the welfare of the people. Not to bring up ruinous consequences, a king must consider the five aspects of resources, time, place, means and nature of execution before embarking on a war.

Tiruvalluvar states that an adept minister must be honest, devoid of sensual pleasure and free from fear of sacrificing life and lure of wealth. A minister should be considerate of time, place, means, manner and difficulties. He must be of noble birth and must be marked with courteous behaviour, steadiness in thought, speech and action and humility. Here, it’s apparent that Kautilya and Thiruvalluvar share similar thoughts regarding the qualities a king and cabinet must possess. Further, he says that the associates should not be preferred based on personal affinity to knowledge or diligence and must be capable of reading ‘unexpressed thoughts’.  Management techniques and decision-making process are also discussed in detail.  Valluvar says that a minister might see his mother starve but still not act hastily; referring to the commitment a minister must have towards the king. He has to avoid actions  that brings in grief and loss to king.

According to Tiruvalluvar, a prosperous kingdom must have fertile and resourceful land, industrious citizenry and wealthy merchants. There should be peaceful coexistence among people and the kingdom must be free from famine, epidemics, anti-social elements and ravaging enemy.

The idea of good governance proposed by Valluvar stands out in many ways. He can be observed emphasising not only on political ideals but also on economic elements in his theory on statecraft and governance. Here is one such example. He states that the three factors of land, labour and capital are indispensable for any kingdom to flourish. This proposition is rooted on the belief that an ideal kingdom should not be vulnerable to starvation, epidemics and other threats.  He also stresses on the need to incorporate freedom from hunger and disease and also from foreign invasions; which otherwise would hamper the kingdom. Along with ethics and morals, wealth also acquires prominence in Valluvar’s ideas. He opines on wasted wealth as “he who hoards wealth and does not enjoy it or utilize it to benefit others, is as good as dead, and his wealth is a waste”. According to him, among all other occupations, agriculture is the supreme; ‘lynchpin of the world and worthiest of crafts’.  State in Valluvar’s conception has no place for poverty. Poverty brings in only miseries and hinders greatness of the kingdom. These pragmatic ideas convey that Valluvar’s notions on good governance are an amalgamation of political as well as economical and ethical ideals.

This work, which brought about a wave of revolution in Tamil Nadu, would be a cause for revolution in governance and other domains all over the world if these ideas are taken to word. These succinct ideas that Valluvar has ingrained continue to be relevant for all dimensions of human life.

Conclusion

It could be easy to identify components and other key takeaways of good governance from the ancient scriptures. However, discerning the problems in governance and combating them effectively as not to limit the idea of good governance in rhetorical realm. The exercise of power and functioning in a setting could be chaotic in practical and operational terms.

The governance systems all across the globe are plagued with a number of issues and challenges such as criminalization of politics, corruption, failure in decentralisation and devolution of powers, malfunctioning of bureaucracy and the civil services, partisan politics and centre-state conflicts etc are few among many.

As a treatise of statecraft, Mahabharata throws light to the fact that in spite of evolving times, political theories in the text are worth following, not only to maintain the territorial integrity of state but also to promote welfare of people.  The literary masterpiece of Thirukkural on the other hand, with its unquestionable immortality and universality, contributes to the nation-building and its adherence would bring in integrity and ethics to the government.

The discoveries and products of ancient India are mostly depicted as those of Arab origin, taking away vitality of the Indian texts. Though Arabs were on a mission to re-transmit the Sanskrit texts, making it easy for the Europeans, such depictions take away the essence of the precepts. Even in the post-independence period we see a tendency of depreciating traditional knowledge systems, resulting in distortion of facts. Indian’s intellectual elite continue to cheer portrayal of pre-colonial India as superstitious, feudalistic, irrational and lacking in scientific temper. This has indeed furthered Euro-centrism and fuelled up prejudice against our traditional knowledge systems. The root cause for this disposition is our flawed education system; that has subverted the ancient ideas, knowledge systems, scientific and cultural achievements in the curricula. The stereotypes are so deeply entrenched that the ideological garb created by the so called ‘intellectual mafia’ continues to distort the age-old value systems that are being recognised abroad but still not in the home country!

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