Introduction to Indian Knowledge Systems
We have a legitimate heritage to be truly proud of, without requiring outside validation. How did it happen that everything in Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) suffers from ignorance or denial? Everything good in India seems to be derived from the Greeks, Romans, Mesopotamians, Chinese, Arabs, or Europeans, and rarely from Bhārata itself! Simultaneously, critics have a field day at the extreme claims of head transplantation, flying aeroplanes, and cloning in the Indian past.
The linear progression of history from a “primitive” past to an “advanced” future, deeply entrenched in western philosophy, embeds itself in Indians even today as a classic case of ‘colonial consciousness’, explained by Dr. S. N. Balagangadhara. It is a misfortune of our education system that few have heard of Śrī Dharampal and his books like The Beautiful Tree and Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century. The colossal work of Śrī Dharampal in deconstructing the discourse - which leads us to conclude we were primitive before the colonials came - is vital to shaking off our persisting colonial consciousness.
Beginning in 1964 – 65, through over a decade later, Śrī Dharampal went into the deepest corners of archives and records in various libraries in India and England. He meticulously reconstructed from the archives what the British discovered and thought about Indian society. The archival material of the colonial descriptions of Indian sciences and technologies seriously undermines the legitimacy of standard perceptions about Indian society. Studied neglect, contempt, and the economic breakdown uprooted and eliminated indigenous sciences and technologies not only from society but from Indian memory itself, says Śrī Dharampal.
Contrary to the standard teaching, Indian society was functioning well and was extremely competent in the arts and sciences of its day, when the British started their rule. Its interactive grasp over its immediate natural environment was undisputed; in fact, it demanded praise. For example, Reuben Burrow says in 1790 that - "Hindoo religion probably spread over the whole earth; there are signs of it in every northern country and in almost every system of worship."
Burrow thought that Stonehenge, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Astrology, Holidays, Games, names of the stars and figures of the constellations, ancient monuments, laws, languages, and the Druids of Britain clearly descended from the ‘Hindoo world’!
English education is perhaps a major factor in generating and perpetuating this colonial consciousness. The statement that Ananda Coomaraswamy made more than a century ago makes sense even today: "A single generation of English education suffices to break the threads of tradition and to create a nondescript and superficial being deprived of all roots—a sort of intellectual pariah who does not belong to the East or the West, the past or the future. The greatest danger for India is the loss of her spiritual integrity. Of all Indian problems, the educational is the most difficult and most tragic." -The Broad Classification of Indian Texts
Apart from the non-orthodox Buddhist and Jain corpus of texts, the orthodox Sanātanī texts divide broadly into the Śruti (that which is heard) and Smṛti (that which is remembered). The Vedas constitute an important part of Indian culture and civilization, but they are by no means the only one. Also, a belief or disbelief in the Vedas does not in any way reflect the status of being a Hindu or belonging to the Indian civilizational heritage.
Five groups of texts — Veda, Upaveda, Vedāṅga, Purāṇa, and Darśana — lay the foundation for the knowledge and wisdom of our heritage and cover the concrete and the abstract, the so-called ‘secular’ and the ‘spiritual.’ The separation of the sacred and the profane makes no sense in Indian traditions. Thus, as Śrī Aurobindo and Ananda Coomaraswamy stressed, the concept of secularism ends up becoming an intense attack on Indian culture. It is a culture where all matter and all fields of activity (literature, arts, poetry, dance, drama, science, and technology) are intensely “spiritualized.”
Vedas
There are four Vedas, which are the core Śruti texts:
1. Ṛgveda (ṛks or verses)
2. Yajurveda (yajus or prose)
3. Sāmaveda (sāmans or songs)
4. Atharvaveda (Sage Atharvaṇa’s compositions)
Each Veda further subdivides into four sections:
1. Saṃhitā
2. Brāhmaṇa
3. Āraṇyaka
4. Upaniṣad
The Saṃhitās deal with bhakti (devotion); the Brāhmaṇas with karma (work, action, ritual); and the Āraṇyakas with dhyāna (meditation). These three dealing with rituals and devotional activities form the Karma-kāṇḍa.
The Upaniṣads (or Vedānta, the final portion of the Vedas) form the Jñāna-kāṇḍa — treatises on the philosophical aspects and deep discussions on the body, mind, soul, nature, consciousness, and the universe. Of the several Upaniṣads (at least 108 of them), ten are most important: Īśa, Kena, Kaṭha, Praśna, Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Taittirīya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brhadāraṇyaka.
Loosely, the Vedic divisions also associate with the āśramas or stages of life: theSaṃhitās correspond to brahmacārya (student) āśrama; the Brāhmaṇas correspond to gṛhasta (householder) āśrama; the Āraṇyakas correspond tovānaprastha (forest dweller) āśrama; and the Upaniṣads correspond tosaṃnyāsa (the ascetic) āśrama.
The Core Vedic Texts - (1) Upavedas
Upavedas (upa, or ‘secondary’ to Vedas) are bodies of aparā (material) knowledge, though still intimately linked to parā (transcendental) insights. Each Upaveda corresponds to one Veda. The Upavedas and Vedas also support the classical concept of Purusartha, the four objectives of life: dharma (duty), artha (material wealth), kāma (intellectual desires), and mokṣa (liberation, freedom).
The Upavedas concern themselves mainly with artha and kāma (‘pravṛtti’ or practice in the outer world), while the Vedas are about dharma andmokṣa (‘nivṛtti’ or practices for the inner world of Self-realization). However, these are not at all strict, as there is an expected overlap in the purposes of the huge corpus of literature.
They include the following:
1. Āyurveda
2. Arthaveda
3. Sthāpatyaveda
4. Gāndharvaveda
5. Dhanurveda
Āyurveda is the medical and surgical science, and some foundational texts include Suśruta Saṃhitā, Caraka Saṃhitā, Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya, Vāgbhaṭa Saṅgraha, andBhāvaprakaśa.
Arthaveda is the wisdom of not only economics but also political science, law, ethics, constitutional studies, defense, management, sociology, trade and commerce, and civil and military engineering. Some of the renowned Arthaveda texts are: Artha-śāstra (Kauṭilya), Pañca-tantra, Yukti-kalpataru, Nīti-kalpataru, Nīti-sāra, Hitopadeśa, Nīti-sūtra, Nīti-vākyāmṛta, Vyavahāra-mayūkhaḥ, Rāja-nīti-mayūkhaḥ, and Rāja-nīti-ratnākāra.
Sthāpatyaveda forms the wisdom of engineering. Sthapati was a head engineer, under whom were sūtradhāras (design engineers), śilpis (sculptors), kārukas (artisans), takṣas (carpenters), kalādas (goldsmiths, silversmiths), kārmāras (blacksmiths), kulālas (potters), tantuvāyas (weavers), and so on. Sthāpatyaveda includes the basic sciences of physics, mathematics, and chemistry and their applied forms like mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, hydraulics, mechanics, and dynamics. The texts of the Sthāpatyaveda included Māna-sāra, Mayamatam, Viśvarūpam, Aparājitapṛccha, Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhārā, and Rūpavastumaṇḍana.
Gāndharva-veda is the wisdom of arts and crafts. The Yajurveda mentions twenty-eight types of arts and crafts. The number of arts and crafts increased over time, and later literature mentions the famous sixty-four arts (catuḥ-ṣaṣṭi-kalā). This includes not just the fundamental arts like poetry, music, dance, theater, painting, and sculpture; but also secondary arts like flower arrangement, magic, juggling, carpentry, and so on. Some of the important texts are as follows: Kāma-sūtra, Nāṭya-śāstra, Kāvyālaṅkāra, Kāvya-darśaḥ, Dhvanya-loka, Śṛṅgāra-prakāśa, Sarasvatī-kaṇṭhābharaṇa, Vakrokti-jīvita, Vyakti-viveka, and Kāvya-prakāśa.
The famous Kāma-sūtra (Sage Vātsyāyana, period between 400 BCE and 200 CE) discusses love and lovemaking with an overall awareness towards a person’s life and society; and furthermore, includes discussions on sociology, aesthetics, ethics, medicine, anthropology, and psychology. The Nāṭya-śāstra (Sage Bharata, period between 200 BCE and 200 CE) is a comprehensive encyclopedia of all performing arts, as well as literature and architecture. It deals with the emotions, sentiments, and moods of theatrical communication. It also deals with methods of presentation; creativity; vocal and instrumental music; lyrics; grammar and figures of speech; stage construction, building sets, and architecture; costumes, jewelry, and make-up; and the education of the actors, dancers, and connoisseurs.
Some scholars include Dhanurveda, the science of archery, as one of the Upavedas. However, there are no foundational texts specifically under Dhanurveda.
The Core Vedic Texts - (2) Vedāṅgas
Vedāṅgas are the limbs (aṅgas) of knowledge (veda). They are the six auxiliary disciplines essential to the study of the Vedas and include the following:
1. Śikṣā (phonetics)
2. Vyākaraṇa (grammar)
3. Chandas (prosody)
4. Nirukta (etymology)
5. Jyotiṣa (astrology/astronomy)
6. Kalpa (ritual)
Śikṣā (phonetics, phonology) is the study of the pronunciation of a language. Śikṣā reveals the sophistication of the Saṃskṛta language and of the Vedas. The texts on Śikṣā include Ṛgveda Pratiśākhya (Śākala Śākha), Śukla Yajurveda Pratiśākhya, Taittirīya Pratiśākhya, Atharvaveda Pratiṣākya (Śaunakīya Śākha), Śaunakīya-Caturādhyāyikā, Yājñavalkya-śikṣā, Nārada-śikṣā, Māṇḍūkī-śikṣā, Pāṇinīya-śikṣā, and Śikṣā-saṅgrahaḥ.
Vyākaraṇa is the most important study of grammar. Saṃskṛta grammar, especially the system of Pāṇini, is known for its perfection, richness, depth, and beauty. Texts on grammar include: Aṣtādhyāyī (ṛṣi Pāṇini), Vārtikā (ṛṣi Vararuci), Mahā-bhāṣya (ṛṣi Patañjali), Vakyapadīya (ṛṣi Bhartṛhari), Mādhavīya-dhātu-vṛtti (ṛṣi Sāyaṇa), and Siddhānta-kaumudī (Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita).
Chandas, the study of prosody and rich poetical meters in Saṃskṛtam, is extremely crucial to understanding the verbal utterances of hymns from the Veda. The texts include: Chandaḥ-śāstra (ācārya Piṅgala), Vṛtta-ratnākara (ācārya Kedārabhatta), Chandonuśāsana (ācārya Hemacandra), and Chandānuśāsana (Jayakṛti).
Nirukta, the study of etymology, is auxiliary to the study of grammar. Grammar tries to develop a word, while etymology tries to analyze it. The texts are: Nighaṇṭu (Yāskācārya), Nirukta (Yaskācārya), Amarakośaḥ (Amarasimha), Trikāṅḍa-śeṣaḥ andVaijayantī-koṣaḥ (Yādava-prakāśa).
Jyotiṣa includes astronomy and astrology. The former is a factual description of celestial bodies and their behaviors. Astronomical observations, mathematics, and calendar making were the highly interlinked and deepest skills of ancient Indians. Astrology, a probabilistic system based on the above three, unfortunately got prominence in the narratives of a “superstitious” India.
There are four sub-groups in the Jyotiṣa group: Jyotiṣa (astronomical observations), Gaṇita (mathematics), Siddhānta, and Horā (astrology). The texts are Vedāṅga-jyotiṣa (ācārya Lagadha), Bṛhat-saṃhitā (ācārya Varāhamihira), Brhad-jātaka (ācārya Varāhamihira), Āryabhaṭīyam (ācārya Āryabhaṭṭa), Sūrya-siddhānta (ācārya Bhāskara), and Siddhānta-śiromaṇiḥ (ācārya Bhāskara).
Kalpa, the study of rituals, covers a vast expanse of knowledge, including ethics, sociology, politics, traditions, and worship.
Sub-groups of Kalpas
Kalpa texts have four main sub-groups of texts:
1. Dharmasūtras (rituals, duties, and responsibilities at a societal level)
2. Gṛhyasūtras (household rituals and duties)
3. Śrautasūtras (rituals and worship of the Vedas)
4. Śulbasūtras (construction of the altar for Vedic fire ritual).
The Dharmasūtras include Vasiṣṭha-, Āpastamba-, Baudhāyana-, Viṣṇu-, and Gautama- sūtras.
The Gṛhyasūtras include: Āśvalāyana, Kauṣītaki, Śāṅkhāyana associated with Ṛgveda; Gobhila, Khādira, Jaiminīya, Kauthuma associated withSāmaveda; Baudhāyana, Hiraṇyakeśī, Mānava, Bhāradvāja, Āpastamba, Vādhūla, Kapiṣṭhala Kaṭha associated withKṛṣṣa Yajurveda; Pāraskara, Kātyāyana, associated withŚukla Yajurveda; and Kauśika associated withAtharvaveda.
The Śrautasūtras include texts like Āsvalayana, Śāṅkhāyana, Lāṭyāyana, Drāhyāyana, Jaiminīya, Baudhāyana, Hiraṇyakeśī, Bhāradvāja, Āpastamba, Kātyāyana, and Vaitana.
Finally, the Śulba-sūtra Kalpa texts include Baudhāyana, Mānava, Āpastamba, and Kātyāyana.
Consolidation and Further Expansion of Kalpas
A consolidation and further expansion of the Dharmasūtras and Gṛhyasūtras of Kalpa are a group of eighteen primary texts called Smṛtis and eighteen secondary texts called Upasmṛtis. The smṛtis include the texts of Manu, Yajñavalkya, Parāśara, Viṣṇu, Vyāsa, Dakṣa, Likhita, Atri, and many others.
Āgamas are the consolidation and further expansion of the Śrautasutras andŚulbasutras of Kalpa. They include numerous and voluminous texts dealing with the temple tradition — construction, art and architecture, iconography of the images, as well as the daily, fortnightly, monthly, and annual rituals and festivals observed in the temples. Above all, they discuss the underlying philosophy of the entire system. The Āgama literature divides into Śaiva (pertaining to lord Śiva); Vaiṣṇava (pertaining to lord Viṣṇu); Śākta (pertaining to goddess Śakti); Bauddha; and Jaina Āgamas.
The Śaiva Āgamas are Raurava, Mukuṭa, Kāmika, and Vātula. The Vaiṣṇava Āgamas are Pañca-rātra Agamas, Sāttvata Saṃhitā, Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā, and Lakṣmī Tantra. The Śākta Āgamas are Śāradā-tilaka, Tripurā-rahasya, and Varivasyā-rahasya. These Āgamas are by no means exhaustive.
Purāṇa and Itihāsa
Amarasimha (fifth or sixth century CE) defined a Purāṇa as having five characteristic topics (pañca-lakṣaṇa):
1. The creation of the universe
2. Its destruction and renovation
3. The genealogy of gods and patriarchs
4. The reigns of the Manus forming the periods called Manvantaras
5. The history of the Solar and Lunar races of kings
Purāṇas consist of stories to educate ordinary people on many topics like famous people, rituals, pilgrimages, festivals, arts, sciences, and so on. They deal with geography, local traditions, history, and folklore with great spiritual insight. There are eighteen Mahāpurāṇas and eighteen Upapurāṇas. The Mahāpurāṇas include the Brahma Purāṇas (Brahma, Brahmāṇḍa, Brahma Vaivarta, Mārkaṇḍeya, Bhaviṣya); Vaiṣṇava Purāṇas (Viṣṇu, Bhāgavata, Nāradīya, Garuda, Padma, Varāha, Vāmana, Kūrma, Matsya); and Śaiva Purāṇas (Śiva, Liṅga, Skanda, Agni).
The Purāṇa literature also includes Sthalapurāṇas that pertain to local traditions in different places, taking elements from the local folklore and from the traditional stories of the Purāṇas.
The Itihasa are the famous epics of India—theRamāyaṇa of ṚṣiValmikī and theMahābhārata of Ṛṣi Vyāsa. These literally translate into our ‘history’ but are stories finally with metaphysical, allegorical, and philosophical insights targeting individual liberation. The spirit of the Upaniṣadik message and the four purposes of life - especially Dharma - run throughout the two most important Itihāsas. The Bhagavad Gītā forms one component of the huge corpus of the Mahābhārata.
Darśana
Darśana, or ‘point of view’ is the English equivalent of philosophy, though with different connotations. There are six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, and Uttara Mīmāṃsā) and three non-orthodox schools (Jaina, Bauddha, and Lokāyata or Cārvaka).
The Nyāya (epistemology) and Vaiśeṣika (ontology) systems largely deal with the physical level. The Sāṅkhya (method of reasoning) and Yoga (union of body, mind, and soul) systems largely deal with the spiritual level. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the preparation for philosophical pursuits and explains the philosophy of rituals; and the system of Uttara Mīmāṃsā deals with philosophical pursuit and gives means for transcending rituals. Each of the darśanas has a huge number of treatises and authors.
Authored by Dr. Pingali Gopal.
Published by Brhat Culture Creative LLP.