Notion of Sacred as Manifested in Hindu Temple Architecture and Iconography

Authored by Anirudh Naveen

Notion of Sacred as Manifested in Hindu Temple Architecture and Iconography

The sacred sphere is intimate to human experience, as it helps imagine a transcendental universe beyond mundane material concerns. The demarcation of sacred space is a product of man’s eternal search for meaning. While any human being is generally predisposed towards the spiritual path, spiritual choices are frequently conditioned by social and political contexts. In India, the most characteristic expression of this quest for spiritual meaning can be noticed in its vibrant temple culture. Every year, millions of devotees from across the subcontinent throng to shrines and undertake exhaustive pilgrimages to fulfill spiritual ambitions, nurtured over lifetimes. This tradition of visiting temples and obtaining ‘darsan’ of the deity has been an integral part of communal life in India for centuries. Temples are perhaps the most compelling embodiments of sacred spheres, but it is important to place them in their cosmological, philosophical and historical contexts, which is precisely where this article seeks to intervene.

The act of worshipping in a shrine carries profound spiritual significance, as the austere confines of these structures conceal a lot of sanctifying energies. Such experiences invite attention to a couple of pivotal questions: What is this sacred energy that abounds in a temple and how is the structure of a temple responsible for diffusing it? While examining the nature of this energy merits scientific analysis (beyond the purview of the author’s knowledge), this paper attempts to investigate the second part of the question. In other words, how do temples reflect the spiritual impulse of devotees, and how did shilpins (architects) from ancient India meticulously embed philosophical ideas into brick and mortar? Even a casual survey of temples across the subcontinent would reveal that notwithstanding the multiplicity of temple styles, there are certain underlying principles that govern the form these temples eventually acquire.

This paper will closely scrutinise the features responsible for shaping the sacred character of temples, as expressed in architecture and iconography. It will do so by examining the philosophical and spiritual basis of structural features, including some references to temple culture and sculptural symbolism. Temples and deities will not be treated as isolated entities but as ‘texts’ requiring careful scrutiny in order to unpack the layers of meaning embedded in them. References from vastu-shastras like Mayamatam and Manasara shall be provided to underline the way sectarian traditions overlapped with architectural developments to manifest sacredness. Given the bewildering diversity of temples found across the subcontinent, a case study from the Malaprabha Valley of Karnataka shall also be provided. The site of Pattadakal has been consciously chosen owing to the variety of temple styles and iconographic influences that can be observed over here.

Hindu Temple as a Sacred Space: Textual and Structural Evolution

Before foraying into the sacred character of Hindu temples, it would help to briefly trace the evolution of temples in ancient India and the way this got reflected in literary traditions. The Vedas reveal a deep-seated fascination with cosmic speculation, and endorse the performance of sacrifices to maintain cosmic balance (Hamilton, 2001)¹. In the Vedic age, the bricks of a sacrificial altar were also arranged such that they formed an orthogonal frame. The rationale behind any yajna was to call upon devas like Indra, Mitra, Varuna to maintain order in the material world, and these deities in turn corresponded with natural elements. This was later consolidated philosophically by the Upanishads which stressed on the unity of the individual (atman) and cosmos (or macrocosm, i.e.brahman). Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that sacrificial altars subliminally functioned as sacred spaces in the Vedic period, before the advent of temples in the subcontinent.

Traditional literature dealing with architecture and iconography are generally classed under the rubric of silpasastra or vastu-shastra. Some vastusastras are encyclopedic in nature while others like Mayamatam and Manasara function like technical manuals for training artisans and craftsmen (Bafna, 1999)². Scholars have generally argued that texts such as the vastu-shastras codified existing architectural traditions. Indeed, most of these texts reflect a regional imprint, i.e, they embody regional structures and practices, implying that they simply systematized earlier traditions.

Royal interest in architecture can be surmised from works such as the Samaranganasutradhara and the Manasollasa, attributed to Paramara Bhoja and Someshwara Chalukya respectively. The corpus of literature dealing with architecture is rather extensive, and fragments of such information can be gleaned from a variety of genres within Sanskrit literature.These include the Matsya Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana, the latter being a text devoted to art and painting, but containing some sections of architecture.

Devotional cults associated with worship of Shiva and Vishnu provided an impetus for construction of formal temples from the sixth and seventh century onwards. Consequently, texts called agamas were composed in classical Sanskrit to codify traditions already in vogue. Agamic literature is heavily sectarian in character and can broadly be divided into Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta canons. These texts were composed in order to establish the cultic status of the temple, prescribe the mode of worship and also determine the nature of structural expansion of temples (Rao, 1989)¹⁷. The material used was to correspond with the importance of the temple in popular imagination. For instance, those considered the best were to be built in stone (silamaya) while wood (daru) was to be used for inferior temples. The Kamikagama, associated with the Shaiva canon, elaborates on various components of a temple (in the context of south India) including its adishthana (base), gala (quadrangular mouldings) and the sikhara (spherical tower). Mandapas or roofed pavilions were to be attached to the sanctum, in order to function as ‘limbs’ of the temple. The surrounding wall of a temple, known as prakara, is also given a lot of significance in the agamas. The Manasara mentions how prakaras give strength (bala) to the temple, adds charm to its structure (shobha) and also provides resolute defense (rakshana) (Rao, 1989)¹⁷. The usage of anatomical terms to describe various parts of a temple- such as feet, neck and head- have led scholars to emphasize upon the “organic unity in temple architecture” (Deva, 1969, p.1)⁷.

Diagrams, Temples and the Cosmos

Diagrams are the most powerful mediums through which the sacred character of any landscape is expressed in the Hindu tradition. Whether humble sanctuaries or large complexes, all temples are built in the scheme of ritual diagrams known as mandalas. Geometrical figures like points, circles and triangles are accorded special symbolic meaning in the vastu shastrasas they represent the energies of the cosmos. A point (bindu) is seen as the source of all creation, while a circle represents the cyclic principle of life, devoid of a starting and finishing point. The square grid though is employed extensively in sacred construction because it represents the manifest territorial world that needs to be transcended. (Khanna, 1979: 33)¹³

These diagrams are a product of India’s philosophical paradigm that collapses all distinctions between man, God and the cosmos. As pointed out by Prof. Kirti Trivedi, Hindu philosophy considers the cosmos to be holonomic, wherein each fragment is believed to be a whole unto itself. In other words, different parts of a temple are not treated in isolation, but considered to represent the entire cosmos in a “microcosmic capsule” (Trivedi, 1989, p. 245)²². Samkhya philosophy, one of the six orthodox philosophical schools of India, proposes this correspondence between the microcosm and macrocosm. Meanwhile, Vedanta also stresses on the divinity that pervades the human body. The maxims ‘Ahambrahmasmi’ or ‘Tattvam Asi’ reveal a non-dualistic principle that humans are indistinguishable from the cosmos. These propositions which exemplify nature as a manifestation of divinity, and human body in turn as a representation of the cosmos, impinge themselves on the form of temples. As shall be illustrated later in the section on iconography, such philosophical ideas also permeate the sculptural and spatial character of temples in India. Vastu-shastras therefore emphasise that the planning of towns, cities and other sacred spaces are supposed to be undertaken by duplicating the cosmic form which is usually based on a square mandala.

Before the construction of a temple, the ground is levelled because it embodies the extent of the manifested universe. This levelled space is meant to evoke peace and harmony, as opposed to the chaos that prevails in the temporal world. The origins of this concept can be traced to the Satapatha Brahmana, where it is stated that for any temple to be built, the earth should be even, it being the starting point for spiritual ascent (Kramrisch, 1946)¹⁴. In order to fulfill these requirements, a temple diagram is laid out on level ground. Purusha (cosmic man) is deemed to be the instrumental cause of the world, whose sacrifice helped in the creation of this world. There are several legends describing how the troublesome vastu purusha was pacified by Lord Brahma and laid low to restore harmony in the household. The whole building, consequently, is considered to be a likeness of the purusha. In the Mayamatam, the Vastupurusha is described as crooked, hump-backed, lying flat on the ground with head facing the east. The body of the vastu-purusha has a number of sensitive points called marmas and the well-being of the building can only be ensured upon confirming the well-being of the vastu-purusha. If not ‘sorrows innumerable will fall upon the limbs of the owner of the house’ (Dagens, 1994, p. 49)⁶. Stella Kramrisch calls the mandala as a “forecast of the temple”, suggesting that the surrounding ravines, streets or towns are linked with the structure of the universe through the vastu-purusha mandala (Kramrisch, 1946, p.7)¹⁴. The temple derives its sanctity from the Vastu-purusha, who resides in the base and transforms the universal principle (vastu-mandala) into a structure that is the likeness of purusha.  Moreover, these patterns are employed by architects not just for delineating sacred spaces but also for town planning, suggesting their wider temporal significance.

By the ninth century, Tantric concepts also began permeating temple architecture across the subcontinent, greatly diversifying the sacred formulae and symbolism employed in temple worship. Tantrism revived the use of mystical symbols, as a result of which diagrams known as yantras soon became an integral part of sadhana. In Tantric tradition, the word mandala refers to an enclosed space where deities are invited through mantras. Yantra literally means to sustain, hold or support the energy present in any element, object or a concept, and is often used interchangeably with mandala (Khanna, 1979)¹³. While the word is conventionally used to refer to mechanical equipment, tantrism endows it with spiritual significance. Therefore, yantras as geometrical patterns can be seen as tools to facilitate meditation and increased awareness. While the mandala has cosmic significance, yantra only manifests a “specific aspect of cosmic power”, such as the representation of a deity (Trivedi, 1989, p. 246)²². The Sri chakra is considered to be the greatest of all yantras, and believers of Shakti accord it with a lot of importance.

Analysing such technical diagrams like the mandala and the yantra may seem like an obfuscating and even pointless academic exercise, but if examined carefully, they perform the formative task of indicating the unity of all existence, a hallmark of Indian spiritual thought. The Upanishads and all major Vedantic texts emphasise on cosmic unity underlying the physical diversity of the world. A cyclical perspective to life is deeply embedded in Indian philosophical traditions, as the cosmos is considered to expand in circles and subsequently contract into one single principle. The goal of life in such a paradigm is to intuit the oneness of all creation because all actions of man eventually result in his returning to a single point, which is the site for the genesis and sublimation of all existence.

Image Worship and Symbolism

India is an overwhelmingly visual culture, and from the earliest times, images have constituted an integral part of the lives of people from the subcontinent. Images form the basis for innumerable devotional practices that constitute Hinduism and further consolidate the sacredness of the Indian landscape. In other words, desire for darshan of the divine image lies at the heart of temple worship in India (Eck, 1998)⁹.

The most distinctive feature of image worship in India is that it is not just visible in shrines or temples, but is enmeshed with the lived experiences of its people. Huge temple complexes are negligible in comparison to small shrines and sacred groves that dominate the subcontinent. Elements of nature like stones, bricks and flowers are endowed with ritual significance, and sometimes even saints are made objects of veneration. Anonymous wayside shrines dot urban landscapes, without necessarily conforming to temple-building rules as laid down in the vastu-shastras (Bharne, 2012)⁴. Furthermore in the contemporary world, icons of Gods are found in diverse settings such as taxis, tea-stalls and sweet shops attesting to the omnipresent nature of divinity that informs modern notions of the sacred.

This practice of worshipping an external image is principally rooted in Vedic philosophy that stresses on the importance of concentrating the mind on an object to attain eternal bliss and harmony. Panini refers to images as ‘pratikriti’ or anything made after the original. Yaska in his Nirukta(etymology) too refers to Gods as resembling men, especially in their capacity to undertake intellectual activities (Rao, 1914)¹⁸. Thus, the quest for worshipping deities clearly ante-dates the composition of the Puranas.  Various iconic and aniconic traditions of image-making have prevailed from Vedic times.^[1]The emergence of new devotional traditions contributed to structural expansion of temples across India. Temples became far more elaborate and also began reflecting more pronounced sectarian connotations from the sixth century onwards. This is when the images of gods and goddesses got divided into pantheons such as Vaishnava and Shaiva, with the shakti cult too developing in the course of time. Two examples of aniconic stones are the Salagrama stone (for Vishnu) and the bana-linga (for Shiva).

The Salagramas are flinted ammonite shells found in rivers, generally in a round and polished form. The varaha purana narrates a legend where the river-goddess of Gandaki requested Vishnu to take birth in her womb, and the Lord appeared in the form of salagramas. Each Salagrama has a hole through which several grooves are visible, resembling the chakra of Vishnu. These are considered to represent discus of Vishnu and therefore, the stone is called ‘svarupa’ or the natural form of Vishnu. This is what lends the stone a sacred character for Vaishnavas as well as Vaidik Saivites (Rao, 1914)¹⁸.

Bana-lingas are representations of Shiva in his svayambhu or self-born form. The linga mostly consists of quarts and egg-shaped pebbles. These are said to be found in holy sites like Amareshwara, near the Mahendra mountains (Rao, 1914)¹⁸. These lingas have two parts- the vertical stone-shaft which is the male component and the circular horizontal base known as the yoni or the pani-pitha. These do not really correspond with sex organs, but rather embody a confluence of male and female principles. Linga is considered to be the static principle which takes the form of an egg (anda-rupa) to convey Lord Shiva’s status as being devoid of attributes. On the contrary, yonir represents the kinetic field of creation which generates movement, change and expansion. While Shiva is a “silent seer of all phenomena”, “Shakti is the phenomenon itself” (Khanna, 1979, p.67)¹³. In other words, all creation is contingent on the creative play (lila) of these two forces, and their very distinction ensures equilibrium in the temporal world (Khanna, 1979)¹³. Lingas are found in Shiva temples across the subcontinent, and their association with architecture shall be elucidated later in this paper.

Consecration

Rites of consecration ascertain the separation of the sacred space from its mundane surroundings. Once consecrated, even a small stone, tree or an object can acquire spiritual significance. Texts prescribe that the shilpin (architect) must also undergo ritual purification to ensure that the images produced are resplendent with attributes. Once an image is created, special rites of consecration are performed in stages. First, the image is purified using a variety of substances like ghee, honey and grass. These substances ensure that the qualities of the image are as clear as possible. Further, priests are entrusted with the responsibility of touching various deities supposed to be located in different parts of the image. For instance, Brahman is seated in the chest and Surya in the eyes. Thus, special rites are performed to manifest the attributes of deities that inhabit any image. Finally, prana(life) is infused into the image in the central site. This essentially endows the image with breathing power, and also establishes its association with the site. Yajamanas or ritually purified priests perform this highly significant ritual of the prana-pratishta. Moreover, to complete the creation of the image, they also pry open its eyes, that are previously sealed with a coat of honey and ghee. This procedure is performed with the help of a golden needle. The eyes of a deity are of utmost importance to a devotee, who looks into them while praying to the Almighty (Eck, 1998)⁹.

These rites endow the deity with human qualities, and the very term ‘prana’ illustrates how human qualities are bestowed upon the deity. This ties in with an earlier reference to anatomical terms being used to describe different parts of temples, again reflecting the erasure of differences between human beings and God. Therefore, all procedures involved in the consecration of the deity in any temple are oriented towards manifesting its sacred qualities so that the darshan of the deity can be made meaningful.

Structure of Temples and Circumambulation

A temple is considered to be the architectural likeness of a mountain, as texts frequently compare it with Mount Meru or other sacred mountains in the Hindu paradigm. Himalayan peaks are held in high esteem in Hindu cosmology because they are considered to be the abode of several gods including Meru and Kailasa (Deva, 1969)⁷. A typical north Indian temple consists of a number of mandapas leading up the tallest spire- the shikhara- located directly above the sanctum sanctorum. These temples also have a crowning ring-stone on top known as the amalaka or the sun-disk, symbolising the celestial world. The sculptural exuberance of temples- with figurines of human beings, animals and natural beauty- mirrors a mountain bustling with activity.

However, even mountains (especially those in the Himalayas) have quaint and isolated sites like caves which are conducive for meditation and spiritual activities. To that extent, the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is like a cave, as it is always dimly lit and unlike the temple exterior, its walls do not pulsate with activity. In other words, the interiors of any temple direct the attention of a devotee to the source of all life in the cosmos. This is also known as the Brahma-sthana of the mandala or the temple-plan. Rituals mentioned earlier not only consolidate the identity of any deity as a manifestation of God, but also as the space from where the cosmic process begins (Trivedi, 1989)²². This is precisely why the sanctum sanctorum of temples is known as the garbha-griha or the womb-chamber. Here, the deity is like a seed that germinates inside the womb and the garbhadhana (seed-laying) ceremony is supposed to be performed by a priest in the middle of the night before active worship begins. The invisible axis joining the centre of the sanctum to the finial of the superstructure is “conceived as the cosmic axis connecting earth and heaven” (Desai, 2000, p. 19)⁸. In this manner, the temple directs a devotee’s eyes and mind from this world to the world above, in order to foreground the linkages between the cosmos and the temple.

This comparison with mountains extends to the practice of circumambulation which any devotee is supposed to perform upon entering a temple. While every temple is associated with one chief deity, there are other gods and goddesses sculpted on niches or placed around the garbha-griha. Thus, before entering the interior of a temple, a devotee circumambulates it to internalize the entire gamut of worldly creation embedded on its walls. Large temples also have an inner ambulatory around the sanctum, which needs to be traversed before a devotee receives darshan. This ritual is also replete with symbolism as it reflects a devotee’s journey from worldly plenitude to the solitude of the temple interiors. On that account, the circumambulation of a temple amounts to circumambulation of the cosmos (Eck, 1998)⁹. Therefore, a visit to the temple is considered to be no less than a pilgrimage, as a devotee is taken on a spiritual journey to facilitate self-realisation and fulfillment of spiritual goals.

Sacred Character of Temples in Pattadakal

The period between the 6^th and the 8^th centuries AD was one of frenzied construction activity in the land below the Vindhyas. By the 7^th century, the Chalukyas of Badami had politically unified large parts of the Deccan, and erected a number of temples in the Malaprabha Valley of present-day Karnataka. The sites of Badami and Aihole reflect formative stages of architectural development, but early western Chalukyan architecture reached its climax at Pattadakal. This is a complex of eight temples, all of them consecrated to Lord Shiva. This complex is a UNESCO World Heritage site, chiefly because it integrates the three major temple building styles found across the subcontinent. Moreover, a survey of structures over here reveals a synthesis of religious ideas, royal initiative and local architectural traditions.^[1]

The construction of these temples around the seventh century AD coincided with the crystallization of northern and southern stylistic repertoires. Until this period, temples generally had simple forms and sculptural motifs carved with great technical virtuosity. Although there were certain unifying characteristics that underlined the sacred character of temples in India, regional differences became more pronounced with the passage of time. Northern or Nagara temples began displaying a cruciform plan along with a curvilinear shikhara while Southern or Dravida temples were soon marked by a pyramidal shikhara, consisting of progressively smaller stories leading to a dome. George Michelle shows how temples reflect a great deal of “stylistic confusion and overlapping”, as the precise nature of temple styles have been shaped by historical events as much as by geography (Michell, 1977, p. 86)¹⁵. This became all the more revealing during times of political uncertainty, as craftsmen belonging to different kingdoms could easily influence the nature of temple building in a specific region. The early Chalukyan temples reflect a striking juxtaposition of styles and the temples at Pattadakal provide a classic illustration of this synthesis.

Pattadakalhad always been a significant religious site for centuries because of its location on the banks of the river Malaprabha. This reinforces the timeless association between temples and rivers. Moreover, the name Patta-dakalu (roughly translating as the soil where kings are coronated) itself presupposes the site having a degree of royal significance.^[2] Rulers in early medieval India built monumental temples to establish their temporal power and legitimize their authority. The magnitude of physical proportions was a definite barometer of temporal ambition, as kings vied with each other to construct gigantic temples that could reflect their territorial power (Michelle, 1977)¹⁵. In the sixth and seventh centuries AD, the Pallavas of Kanchi and Chalukyas of Badami were locked in political conflicts, and temples frequently became sites of contestation. Kings erected structures such that they could outshine those of rival kingdoms. Hence, temples and sacred spaces began being identified by dynastic appellations, as can easily be noticed in the caves of Badami and the rathas at Mahabalipuram.

Interlocking horse-shoe motifs are found on the pediments above panels in the Galaganatha temple, one of the four Nagara-styled temples in this complex^[3]. These are known as gavaksha motifs, named so because the arches resemble the eyes of a cow. These arches are a feature of both Nagara and Dravida temples and symbolically convey the processes of emergence, expansion, proliferation and dissolution. The repetition of gavaksha motifs points towards agricultural productivity in the region, epitomizing prakriti or nature’s bounty. In the Galaganatha temple, a proliferation of half-gavaksas can be seen overlapping such that their separateness itself gets dissolved witha whole new gavaksa emerging in between. The structure looks similar to a woven tissue, and hence is known as jala (net) (Hardy, 2007)²⁰. This repetition of motifs manifests what Trivedi calls ‘fractalisation’ in temples which gives a vibrant, visual quality to the structure (Trivedi, 1989)²².

The Galaganatha temple also has a prominent Sukha-nasa (parrot’s beak). This is a triangular projection located in front of the superstructure of the temple, which is dominated by a large gavaksha. The shikhara is crowned by the amalaka (crown) surmounted by a kumbha (pot) and kalasha(finial). These features are common in the Vallabhi style of Nagara architecture.

Fully modelled guardians called dvarapalas are also placed outside most temples, protecting the mandala from external threats. These guardians are portrayed as fearsome giants and powerful warriors in order to underscore their abilities to prevent any invasive forces from entering the precincts of a temple. In temples across India, there are variations in sculptures of dvarapalas based on the deity worshipped inside the temple. Vishnu temples generally have Bhadra and Subhadra or Jaya and Vijaya while Shiva temples have combinations such as Shringi and Bhringi. Most Shiva temples also have a Nandi pavilion outside as Nandi is a protective deity. In the Virupaksha temple as well, there is a pavilion with a massive Nandi, almost 3 metres long and 1.8 metres high. This pavilion has niches with attendant females in amorous postures.

The sanctuary walls of several temples in this complex display Ardhanarishwara, a fusion of Lord Parvati and Shiva. The unity of opposite principles, as discussed earlier in the context of the linga and yoni, is once again manifested in such sculptures.

The Virupaksha temple is the only temple in active worship in the complex. It is a sandhara complex or one complete with a circumambulatory passage. On the exterior porch columns, courtly couples are depicted with long clothes. On one of the porch walls, Lord Shiva is carved inside a linga (lingodbhava), a very unique sculptural rendition that illustrates how the linga is seen as the source of all universal energies which are embodied in the Lord himself. Columns in the north porch are embellished with icons of Vishnu, in one case seen descending on Garuda to escape from Gajendra and in another, alongside a devotee. As in other temples, there are panels depicting Shiva and Parvati embracing each other, along with Nandi.

However, the sculptural imagery of the mandapa columns in the temple interiors are deeply symbolic and resound with life. Courtly couples locked in embraces; animals fighting and a range of vegetal motifs constitute some of the major themes that feature in this sculptural panoply. However, the narrative reliefs stand out for their vibrance and layers of meaning embedded in them. These include stories from the timeless epics- Mahabharata and Ramayana- as well as episodes such as the Kiratarjuniya or incidents from the life of Lord Krishna. Scenes from the Mahabharata including the council of war, the clash between Arjuna and Karna, Bhishma lying on a bed of arrows and the ultimate battle between Bhima and Duryodhana are etched on the walls. From the Ramayana, scenes include the fight between Sugriva and Vali, the abduction of Sita, Hanuman finding Sita in Ravana’s Garden and Rama meeting Jatayu after attempting to rescue Sita. Origin-stories like the churning of the ocean are also vividly depicted inside the temple. These striking narrative reliefs, situated right outside the sanctum sanctorum bring to light the spiritual significance of epics and ‘itihasa’ in the Hindu way of life. Most of these episodes revolve around significant conflicts between characters from these epics which determined the subsequent trajectory of events and culminated in the restoration of dharma. The Papanatha temple, at a short distance from the Virupaksha temple complex, too has such striking reliefs sculpted on its outer walls. These vivid illustrations capture the way stories and narratives further consolidate the sacredness of shrines.

While the ceremonial significance of this temple complex is yet to be ascertained, there is irrefutable evidence of royal interference in the architectural form acquired by these temples. A pillar inscription in front of the Virupaksha temple not just eulogises the royal queens who patronized the temple but also mentions the names of artisans who participated in this endeavour. The temple was constructed at a time when the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya had carried out a successful campaign to Kanchi which was closely followed by his coronation. His influential queen, Lokamahadevi, ensured that the Shiva temple in Pattadakal- which had earlier been patronised by her deceased sister- was duly completed. This was a deft attempt to inflate her husband’s martial credentials, and demonstrate his successful performance of royal dharma. This temple was aptly called Lokeshwara (the God of the world), which is now known as the Virupaksha temple. Thus, the construction of this monumental temple reflects not just the monarch’s temporal power but also his diligent adherence to dharmic principles. More crucially, the unprecedented influence of a queen in temple construction can also be discerned. Lokamahadevi left her stamp of authority on the temple in several ways, including a sculpture which depicts her as a beautiful young woman standing on a throne, upheld by three lions. In the same mandapa, she is also depicted as Durga, the lion-riding aspect of the Divine Mother that shelters the Chalukya family with her bravery and ferocity (Kanisetti, 2022)¹². Therefore, her own temporal authority and performance of dharma can also be discerned from the temple walls.^[4] This case study from early medieval India reveals the way divisions between temporal and sacred dissolved within shrines, which remained principally oriented towards spiritual growth and self-discovery.

Conclusion

The last century or two have been characterisedby unprecedented technological growth and urbanization, but the quest for preserving sacred spaceremains undiluted. Temples continue to proliferate across urban centres in India, especially in the form of petty wayside shrines. The hallowed precincts of temples, that attract devotees to obtain darshan, are deeply shaped by their structural features. This article has demonstrated how philosophical and cosmological principles embedded in vastu-shastras and agamic literature have influenced the evolution of temples in the Indian subcontinent. Each component of a temple is seen as a microcosmic capsule of the universe, and spiritual growth is contingent upon the devotee identifying with the universe as manifested in the deity. This blurring of distinctions between man, cosmos and God also happens to be a feature of temple iconography. In some ways, temples also seek to harmonise forces that otherwise may seem essentially opposed to each other. This can most prominently be noticed in the co-existence of a shiva-linga (male principle) with the yoni (feminine principle). The square plan or the vastu-purusha-mandala also underlines this quest for preserving harmony and eradicating all forces that threaten cosmic order. A devotee’s passage from the porch of a temple through the embellished mandapas into the dimly-lit garbha-griha is almost akin to a pilgrimage. Circumambulation is supposed to absorb the cosmic energies that abound in a temple. The narrative reliefs on the walls of temples in Pattadakal provide some insight into the role of epics and folk tales in fostering and preserving the sanctity of sacred space. While temples in this complex are attributed to royal queens, a number of local traditions also influenced the form of temples over here. This study is an attempt to foreground some of the fundamental principles that make Hindu temples an integral part of Indian heritage. It has illustrated how temples are spaces not merely meant for either individual salvation or congregational worship, but as emblems of universal harmony and environmental sustainability. Therefore, it would be appropriate to consider temples as structural manifestations of the cosmological and philosophical doctrines that have shaped Hinduism over the centuries. To that extent, this paper attempts to illuminate the scientific temper of artisans, craftsmen and kings in ancient and early medieval India, when scientific and spiritual developments overlapped and shaped the social experiences of millions of people